302- Pottery, Tools, Beads
Pottery :
In Archaeological terms. Pottery is various from & shape vessels made with the help of baked clay and other ceramic materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. Pottery is one of the oldest surviving human invention after stone/bone tools. Historically, pottery can be handmade or Chalk made.
Pottery has very significant role to play as an archaeological source in understanding the social, cultural, religious, economical, political and technological aspect of a settlement. In recent years, pottery has unraveled many unsolved mysteries of history.
As (Padma Vibhushan) prof. B. B. Lal has stated, "The extent to which Pottery has succeed in resolving problems of History no other archaeological source has achieved."
The importance of pottery was first highlighted by the British Egyptologist sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie in 1880s. He said "Pottery is the alphabet of archaeology"
Why pottery is needed:
Importance of Pottery :
1.) A Particular culture is characterized by a particular type of pottery, hence the pottery play a vital role to understand/identify the culture.
2.) A pottery can survive for over thousands of years with in the layer deposits while other organic materials such as leather, wood and oxidizing metals like iron perishes in short period of time.
3.) The different pottery pieces found in the stratification can be used to fix the relative dating of the strata.
4.) According to Prof. B. B. Lal, Since pottery is a fragile object. It can not last longer and discarded after a very short period of time, whereas coins are durable and could be in use even after 200-300 years of its first issue. Thus, pottery can provide much more exact/near time frame to the cultural deposition (strata) of its findings.
5.) Different types of potteries found at different levels can be compared with each other to understand the skills and technology associated in manufacturing the potteries. This not only helps to differentiate between different layers(Strata) but also help to set the chronology of those layers and used to establish the connection between different cultural sites.
Similar type of pottery found from different place also help us to connect cultures of different places.
the pottery found from different Indus valley sites from East to west, help us to understand the spread of the culture.
The different style and method of manufacturing of potteries represents of different time period and different place.
6.) Method of manufacturing also gives us an idea about the technological advancement.
7.) If different cultures developed simultaneously in the same period then the differentiation can be made by the analysis of potteries of different colours and types.
8.) The trading and cultural relationship among various cultures can be established on the basis of typical potteries found at other places. Thus the potteries are great source to find out the extent of a culture. The Roman Arretineware potteries found from Arikamedu indicate a trade connection between Indian and Roman culture in 1st AD. Similarly long handled Jars known as Amphorae found from the same place also ascribe to the import of roman wine to India.
9.) Pottery also carry important information in the context of archaeological study, since sometimes they also contain elaborate paintings and inscriptions on its outer surfaces. several illustration of epic Illiad on Greek Amphora of 5th century BC certainly give an idea of antiquity of the epic. similarly, a pottery depiction found at Lothal Gujarat shows two birds perching on tree branch carrying fish in its beak and a fox type animal standing underneath certainly takes back the story of clever fox of Panchatantra. This set the antiquity of such story upto 4000 years back. Similarly, depiction on Indus pottery help us to understand the life of Indus people.
10.) Direction of Indus valley script could be decisively identified with the help of writing on ostraca (pottery sherds) found from Kalibangan region by Prof. B B lal.
11.) Pottery give an idea about food habits and type of foods. the excavations yield potteries of various shapes and size which helps archaeologist understand the usage pattern. such as Lota (Sprouted pot) is common finding in India, similarly dishes, perforated Jars for incense ( religious), very small pots (Medicinal purpose), Large size urns for Granary purpose.
Analysis of Pottery :
The archaeologist analyze style, form and technology behind manufacturing of the pottery. studies based on stylistic attributes, form attributes, and technological attributes is here under —
1. Type of clay
2. Shape of the Pottery
3. Size of the Pottery
4. Texture of the Pottery
5. Function of the Pottery
6. Fabric of the Pottery
7. Colour of the Pottery
8. Wash of the Pottery
9. Hardness of the Pottery
10. Thickness of the Pottery
11. Paint/Burnish/Polish of the Pottery
12. Incision/Perforation or other decoration on Pottery
- The Mouth, rim, neck, body, base, sprout, handle is also being study by the experts to reach a conclusion about possible use, technology used etc.
Manufacturing Techniques :
Hand Made Technique : Anvil Method, Pinching Method, Coiling Method
Chalk (wheel) Made : Slow Wheel, Fast Wheel (identified by striation mark on pottery)
Once the vessel is formed, it is usually smoothed to create a uniform surface,
often using a coating of a thin clay solution or slip.
Specialized slips that vitrify during high-temperature firing are called glazes. A vessel may be further modified or decorated by modeling, either adding clay (welding appliqués) or subtracting clay (incising, carving, cutting, and so on). When dry, the vessel may be polished by rubbing with a smooth, hard object, such as a beach pebble, to compact the surface and give it a shine.
Firing transforms clay from its natural plastic state to a permanent nonplastic
one. During the firing process clay may pass through as many as three stages:
1. Dehydration or loss of water, occurring at temperatures up to about 600°C.
2. Oxidation of carbon and iron compounds in the clay, occurring at temperatures up to about 900°C.
3. Vitrification—a complex process in which glass and other new minerals are formed in the clay, occurring at temperatures above about 1000°C. Vitrification fuses the clay so that the vessel walls become waterproof. The
earliest glazed pottery appears to have been produced in China by 1500 b.c.
POTTERY SLIPPING :
after giving desired shape the pottery was painting with a solution
known as slip. with a thin clay coating, that helped maintain surface
colour and texture and assisted in controlling the porosity of the
vessel. most of the time it red was prefereed but red, orange, white,
blue, and yellow.The paints were applied with brush or some brush-like
implement. then painted motif with black colour.
The pots were generally fired in round kilns with round tops and pierced floors with underlying fire-pits
fast wheel :
potters’ wheel is turned at high speed which generates centrifugal
force which helps to shape the clay rapidly. Small bowls were produced
rapidly on a fast wheel using large lumps of clay. More decorated
vessels were trimmed by hand and burnished to produce elegant forms and
refined surfaces. The larger pots were assembled out of two-three
components fabricated separately
Indus Valley : Pottery Making Technique
1- Alluvial soil with fine grain and properly kneaded with water was prepared.
2- Hand made, Hand wheel, Foot wheel used for potting.
3- Pottery of flat base as well as round of pointed base were made.
4- Flat base indicate removal of pottery from chalk with the help of string in slow motion.
5- Trimming of the lower portion was achieved with the help of a knife.
6- Jars having angular shoulders were made in two pieces which were fitted together when wet.
7- After modelling the pots were dried in a steady temperature and to reduce porosity burnishing was done by mechanical friction on the surface.
8- Pottery was dipped in a solution before firing known as "Slip" which helped against the porosity of the pottery. = cream, white, black, chocolate, purple, pink etc.
9- For decoration Cording, Incising, Scoring, Perforating, impression etc used on the surface before firing.
Cording = Made with the help of a cord
Incising = Made with a pointed tool or metal comb.
Scoring = Made with a very sharp tool, metal comb.
Impression = Made by wooden stamp before baking
Graffiti = Made with Pointed tool after baking.
10- Painting after or before baking.
11- Potter had considerable control over the furnace, the potteries was well baked.
12- Kilns are domed compartment above to hold the vessels to be baked. There are holes in the floor of the upper chamber. Kiln baking had some advance over the open firing method
13- After baking Monochrome (Black) or PolyChrome (Red Ochre+Green Pigment) paintings.
14- Intersecting circles, Triangles, Squares, Lozenges, Floral, Animal designs.
Famous pottery cultures:
Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (2000-1500 BC): Eastern Punjab, Western UP and Rajasthan
Black and Redware Pottery culture (1500-1200 BC): North and Central India
Painted Greyware Pottery culture (1200-600 BC): West Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, East Punjab
Northen Black Polished Ware cultur (600-200 BC): Northern India
Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (2000-1500 BC): This was first identified by Prof. B. B. Lal in excavation of Badayun and Bijnaur district in 1949, but was subsequently found from the sites of Punjab, west up and Rajasthan, almost 80 sites.
Hastinapur, Atranjikheda, Saifai, Sringaberpur, Ahichhatra, Bharatpur (Noah), jalandhar.
Qualities :
1. pottery colour is ochre (Gairuna), which leaves in hands if touched.
2. Pottery are very fragile in nature, can break even in touching. This indicates that they were not properly fired.
3. Thin and thick both type are found. Thicker are bigger in size while thin vessels are generally smaller.
4. According to Proff. Lal, these potteries were in vogue side by side with copper hoard cultures because such type of pottery is also found at some copper hoard sites.
5. These types of pottery found in lowest layers, Hence assigning a time period was not an easy task but several excavation at Hastinapur, Atranjikheda and Ahichhatra led Prof. Lal to fix the time frame prior to 1200 AD. the Thermoluminescence technique yields dating range from 2000 to 1500 AD.
Most of the site found in OCP culture is either single culture site or alone settlements. This indicates that the site was not occupied for long period of time and the density of human population was very sparse. the settlements were situated quite sparsely from each other.
Black and Red Ware culture (1500-1200) :
As the name indicates the pottery of this type had black colour inside and on the outer rim. while other outer parts was covered with Red colour. This type of pottery is quite different from other types because of its ornamentation.
Technology used : As per the scholars, while baking such type of pottery, they were kept upside down due to which the inner part became black due to unavailability of oxygen while outer part became red due to adequate oxygen availability.
These potteries are made with the clay from river banks since they contain lime and sand traces. the colour of the potteries are light red, dark read and blue. red colour was also applied later to make it more shiner.
example : Dishes, lid, pot, bowl,
Provenance : Rangpur, Lothal (Gujarat), Ahar, Gilund (Rajasthan), Atranjikheda, Kaushambi, Shravasti, (UP), Maheshwar, Nevasa, Navadatoli (MP), Sonpur, Chirand (Bihar)
All Black and Red ware found from these sites have slight variations.
Usage cultures : Vedic Culture by K. D. Banarjee, A. Ghosh because of the word "Neel Lohit" in Atharvaveda
Avedic Culture by Dr. Singh because it was spread over a large area outside Aryan influence.
Megalithic Culture by Dr. H. D. Sankalia
Painted Greyware Pottery culture (1200-600 BC): The colour of this type of pottery was Grey and the potteries are painted with black, red and dark brown colours. PGW was first found in the excavation of Ahichhatra (1940-44)
Qualities :
1. Made on Chalk
2. Made by properly kneaded, soft clay
3. baked in kiln with reducing temperature, which gave them specific grey colour
4. these potteries are very thin
5. painted with black and read lines, geometric lines, squares, dots, circles inside circle. wavy lines.
6. The layers in which this pottery found is always below NBPW. and in Indus site these were found above the Indus artefacts.
Famous sites : Ahichhatra, Kaushambi, Hastinapur, Kurukshetra, Kampilya, Mathura, Shravasti, Panipat, ropar, Bahadurgarh. Ujjain (MP), Jammu (Kashmir), Sindh (Pakistan)
Northern Black Polished Ware ( 600-200 BC) :
These potteries were first found in the north region, and the shining surface was mistook as polish by the archaeologist, the experts such as wheeler and Krishndeva wrongly understood them as specific to North India. Hence, the name Northern Black polished ware was given to these potteries.
while in later excavation, it was reported that these type of pottery was found at Eastern, western, southern part of India. Vessels are found not only in black colour but golden, blue, orange and chocolate, pink colour also. The shine part is not a polish but is a Glage.
Although these type of pottery is found from various places but the core area where these pottery are abundant, confine to North India and middle Ganga valley region.
sites: Taxila, Charsadda, Udigram, Begram (Pakistan), Nepal, Tilaurakota, Prabhas Patan (Gujarat), Nasik, Bahal (Maharashtra), Dinajpur, Chandraketugarh, Pahadpur, Shishupalgarh, Nagarjunkonda
Qualities :
1. Well kneaded, fine clay was sued
2. prepared on fast chalk, which made it very thin and light
3. baked in high temperature kiln.
4. the potteries are normal in looks and simple
5. the potteries have shining or luminescence
6. Some samples from Hastinapur, Kaushambi, Shravasti have painting of lines, dots, concentric circles, wavy lines.
7. black, pink, dark brown and almond colour found
8. some of the designs on these pottery are made by way of seal impressions.
9. Marks the beginning of second urbanization phase.
10. Coins, iron implements, bricks, terracotta figurines, beads are also found with this type of potteries.
As per stratigraphic analysis and relative dating methods suggest the time period of such potteries from 600-200 BC
Stone Tools :
The
tools made of stone for any specific purpose is called as stone tools.
Prehistoric period is entirely associated with stone tools of various
size and shapes. Archaeologist often study these tools (lithic analysis)
to garner more information about the prehistoric cultures and their
advancement.
Significance of Lithic Analysis :
1. Stone tools helped experts to identify the possible prehistoric human settlements at particular sites.
2. Since stone tools advancement took place gradually with the evolution of the human. The study also helps in reconstructing prehistory of region with regards to the human evolution.
2. Stone tools found from various deposition also help archaeologist to understand the connection between palaeoclimate with the prehistoric humans.
3. Stone tools play a big role in understanding the Geo Archaeology.
4. Stone tools typology help in understanding the various geographical and climatic challenges faced by humans and their varied need according to changing environments.
5. Examination of Various raw materials for stone tools such as chert, jasper, chalcedony, agate etc help experts to establish the availability of source quarry either locally or at remote place by way of trade or migration.
The stone tools are the earliest surviving
artifacts used by man. There are two types of technology involved in
manufacturing of stone tools.
1. Flintknapping = fracturing/flaking technique (Percussion, Blade)
2. Grounding = Pecking and grinding polishing technique.
a.) Tools are both analyzed by size and shape and its manufacturing techniques.
The typology of the stone tool suggest us of its possible usage.
b.)
while Manufacturing technique alludes to the technological advancement
of the human race. Manufacturing technology also take into consideration
of the debitage left behind while making tools. Also the raw material (Petrological Analysis) led experts to establish the connection with source quarry for
the tools.
BEADS:
Analysis of Bone and Shell tools
Analysis of Beads :
Beads are commonly defined as being small ornaments perforated through their centers and small enough to be worn on the body.
Beads can be strung in a series on a thread, sewn individually onto clothing, or traded as separate objects that can be counted. They are often kept with dead as part of burial ritual. Pendants are a type of bead that is perforated at one or both ends rather than symmetrically through the middle.
Beads are among the earliest known symbolic expressions of modern humans and represent an important tool for identification of thinking and cognition in archaeological sciences. Beads first appear with in the material culture as early as 1,00,000 Years ago.
Importance of Beads :
1.) Beads helps to understand the artistic and aesthetic approach of human race.
2.) Beads found in foreign lands where local raw material is not available indicates to the trade link between the cultures.
3.) Bead shape and its raw material also indicates to the various social groups with in the group.
4.) Represent an excellent medium for construction of value, trade and exchange within economic networks
bead and ornament study is filled with descriptive generalizations based on below mentioned factors:
1. Raw Material : Wide array of raw materials
a)Biological material : mollusk shell, ostrich egg shell, ivory, bone, tooth, antler, horn, feathers, wood and seeds
b) Stone and Minerals : apatite, malachite, turquoise, ocher, basalt, obsidian, limestone, lapis lazuli and carnelian
c) Composite materials : ceramics, various metals, glazed enstatite, faïence and glass
2. Colour : Various types of colours such as orange, Blue, Red, Yellow, while, milky white, Black, brown etc
3.) Morphology : Different sizes and shapes
a)Size : from a few centimeters to 3-4 inches
b)Shape : various types of shapes - i) Regular and ii) Irregular (circular, half circular, cylindrical, spherical, oval, triangle, square shape etc)
BEADS IN INDIA
Beads first appear with the advent of modern man, Homo sapiens, at least forty thousand years ago, and probably have been made and used by every culture in the world since then. However, use of organic material beads could be much earlier. They have always been treated as important personal possessions and are well represented in the archaeological records
The earliest known beads are associated with Neanderthal man at La Quina,France, approximately 38,000 B.C. They are made from grooved animal teeth and bones. shell beads of about 40,000 B.C. have been found in Ucagizli Cave in Turkey
Some of the oldest beads in the world have been found in India. Disk beads of ostrich eggshell and an olivia shell bead from Patne in Maharashtra date to about 23, 000 B.C., and a bone bead and several cattle incisor teeth grooved for stringing, found at the Kurnool Cave, date to 17,000 B.C.
In undivided India bead making was one of the most ancient arts since in most places the requisite materials were ready to hand. Lapis lazuli was mined in the ancient Afghan region of Badakhshan
SOME NEOLITHIC SITES - mehargarh, hallur, tekkalkota, Nagarjunakonda, Mahagara(UP), Chirand
HARAPPAN - The Harappans used a variety of material for making beads: stone, steatite, metal and organic substances. In fact, beads are by far the most popular indicators of ornamentation found in the Harappan sites. If one includes the large number of steatite micro-beads, there are hundreds of thousands of beads in a wide array of types and materials, each with its distinctive manufacturing technology Bead making also requires techniques of sawing, baking, grinding and boring.
The Harappans etched beads by making patterns in alkali paste and then heating the bead till the alkali was absorbed. In another type, the whole bead was made white with alkali heating and then a black design was painted, perhaps with copper
1- chipping out a rough blank, then refining the shape witha delicate round of knapping
2- chipping marks were then ground away on a hone, Time consuming
3- Gem was given final shape and size
4- bead was then drilled
5- bead often show little cup marks, pecked into both ends. (Hard stone drill - chert)
6- drilling was done by the use of a bow, pump drill, drilling from both sides.that pump or bow drills with chert bit were used to perforate stone beads., cylinderial stone drills made of chert & Jasper, Copper drilling
7- polishing of the stone beads was done in a leather bag moving.
During the Indus Age, there is evidence of the forming of pots using slab technology, coiling, slow and fast wheels, as well as paddle and anvil. Some individual pots were made, using more than one of these techniques
FAIENCE BEADs : Melting the rock quartz in high temperature kilns (1000c) to produce a glassy frit mixed with the colourant. glassy vitreous paste from quartz mixed with minerals for colours. After regrinding on smooth stones the powder was once again mixed with a powdered flux and moistened with water. the faience paste then used to form into delicate objects. the soluble salts in the flux would accumulate on the surface of the object as it dried. When fired at around 920c, the concentration of the flux on the exterior would result in a thin glaze, while the interior of the object was fused in complacy glassy mass. a variety of ornament and beads were made by hand modelling.
TYPE OF RAW MATERIAL : Shell, bone, ivory, teeth, steatite, turquoise, lapis lazuli, and alabaster, carnelian, agate, pottery, faience, onyx, amethyst, feldspar, turquoise, copper, bronze, silver, gold.
Terracotta :
Baked Clay object other than vessels is regarded as Terracotta. Terracotta could be in the from of a figurine of human, animal, tree, gamesmen, toys or imitation of any other article or mythical item. Terracotta have been found in many prehistoric sites throughout the world and Indian Sub continent.
Ancient Terracotta figurines are evocative of not merely the aesthetic aspirations of prehistoric communities but are also evocative of their spiritual inclination. For instance, Terracotta figures including the dancing lady and squatting Yaksha imitate the continuity related to the realistic style that existed in the Maurya dynasty’s capital during 322–185 BCE in Pataliputra
During Pre-harappan period we see a large number terracotta figures in the form of animals and mother goddess.
Made from Alluvial clay which is used for making potteries, its plasticity helps a good deal in modelling the figure.
The Terracotta models were made in two ways:
1- By Hand Modelling
2- By shaping in moulds
1- By Hand Modelling - made in single piece or different parts were made separately and later glued together. The ornamentation were made separately and then add to the main figure with applique and fixing methods.
Mother Goddess (Female)
1- eyes were represented by pellets of clay oval in shape.
2- Nose made by pinching the clay
3- Mouth was portrayed by elongated pellets, with horizontall incised line to demarcate roughly the lips.
4- Hair style was shown very ornamented
5- turban or headdress is also very elaborate, Indus valley has lamp shape design
6- Typical large breast and heavy hips and thin low waist
Animals :
1- Mostly hollow inside.
2- Made on core material (could be a mould)
3- Vent holes in figures to permit the release of gases during baking process.
4- Mask and fine bull are made on mould.
5- Human figures were modelled by hand.
6- eyes of the animals were represented by deep incision in the clay and small round pellets were inserted into it to represent the pupil. wrinkles and heavy folds of bulls were portrayed by means of incised lines and addition of clay strips.
7- Animals stand on flat pottery base, sometimes these bases have holes horizontally in which wheels can be fixed.
8- Dove, Monkey, Dog, Pigs, ram, bulls, Rhinoceros, hare, elephant, peacock, squirrel, Mongoose.
9- rattles have small terracotta beads inside
10- Toy animals or human figures with movable heads or hands. separately made and attached to each other by fastening a string or stiff hair in between
11- Firing process quite similar to the pottery of the time.
12- Spindle whorl made of terracotta has been found in large numbers for spinning the thread
13- also lots of gamesmen belong to games like chess, Dice, weighing
Later in period we see a large number of terracotta figurines in Mauryan period at different centers like Kaushambi, Ahichhatra, Mathura, Chandraketugarh, Tambluk etc
Mauryan Period : the Terracotta figure face was made with the help of mauld and rest of the body was made by hand, they were joined together later. The terracotta figure were made from all around. ex. Patna, Bulandibagh, laughing terracotta boy, smiling girl, Saari wearing females, decorated hairs, some holes in head show place for fixing hairs in toys
Shunga period : all terracottas were made with mould, the quality of moulds were very fine. Plaques were also seen during Shunga period, in which picturization of entire story could be shown in a single plaque. addition clay was added in square of circular fashion so that a frame type plaque could be achived. Entire depiciton was very delicate, espcially in Kaushambi and Chandraketugarh, very heavitly ornamented terracotta plaque of females.
Kushan period : Very Mascular size, faces were not very good, ugly face, head was made separately than attached with body. the Body was heavy
Gupta period : Double mould, clay was fixed between two moulds, hence true 3-D image could be achieved. Gupta period is golden period, after molding extra works were done to make the terracotta fine. then after it was fired.
Interestingly the themes of the terracotta objects were mostly secular, devoid of any religious or mythological context, as it was clearly evident during the initial phase of the Buddhist era.
WHEEL:
a circular frame of hard material that may be solid, partly solid, or spoked and that is capable of turning on an axle.
The idea of wheeled transportation may have come from the use of logs for rollers, but the oldest known wheels were wooden disks consisting of three carved planks clamped together by transverse struts.
The invention of the solid wooden disk wheel falls into the late Neolithic, and may be seen in conjunction with other technological advances that gave rise to the early Bronze Age. The wheel was a breakthrough invention since it was not an imitation of any kind available in nature and completely human ingenuity.
4500–3300 BCE (Copper Age): invention of the potter's wheel; earliest solid wooden wheels (disks with a hole for the axle); earliest wheeled vehicles; domestication of the horse
3300–2200 BCE (Early Bronze Age)
2200–1550 BCE (Middle Bronze Age): invention of the spoked wheel and the chariot
Potters Wheel - Used by the potter to make fine pottery
The wheel alone, without any further innovation, would not have done much for mankind. Rather, it was the combination of the wheel and axle that made early forms of transportation possible, including carts and chariots.
Axle Wheel - A wooden or metal beam used as Axle, which is fixed at the center of the two similar wheels at both ends. The first carts featured wheels and axles that turned together, It could be used to transport goods and people to a distance without much effort and drawn by the cattle. The combination of the wheel and axle made possible early forms of transportation, which became more sophisticated over time with the development of other technologies.
The earliest wheels were made of solid wood, with a hole in the core for the axle. Axle was fixed in the middle of the wheels, and a sledge was rest on it. Wooden pegs were used to fix the sledge so that when it rested on the rollers it did not move. The axle turned in between the pegs, allowing the axle and wheels to create all the movement. Later, the pegs were replaced with holes carved into the cart frame, and the axle was placed through the holes.
Finally, the fixed axle was invented, wherein the axle did not turn but was solidly connected to the cart frame. The wheels were fitted onto the axle in a way that allowed them to freely rotate. Fixed axles made for stable carts that could turn corners better.
Spoke wheel : The spoked wheel is an important symbol in India, especially since the image is an integral part of our national flag. This wheel is considered to be Ashoka’s Dharma Chakra and is associated strongly with Buddhism. in spoke wheel the wheel has three parts, the upper circular part which touches the surface is known as round traction surface, is connected with the hub or center of the wheel with the help of several radiating rods or logs of equal size, the axle is connected with the hub. Spoke wheel played a major role in horse drawn war chariots, which were more lighter and swifter than the ordinary wheel drawn carts. Proto-historic period (1800-1200 BCE) paintings in various regions of India such as Chibbar Nulla, Chhatur Bhoj Nath Nulla, Kathotia, etc. depict the usage of chariots with spoked wheels.
Spinning wheel : The spinning wheel is another example of how the wheel can be used. This device, invented in India over 2,500 years ago, was used to spin thread from natural fibers such as cotton, flax, and wool. The early evidence from Indus valley alludes to the use of spinning wheel based on spoke.
Persian wheel : Persian Wheels although ascribed to the Persian invention may have been invented in India even before Mauryan period, since, Chanakya uses a word for such type of arrangement, "Araghatta" which later to be known as "Rahat" in regional languages. This wheel is fitted in a well featuring an ox-driven pump where the ox walks in circles around a central drive shaft which turns this Persian wheel that raises water via a chain of buckets from the well. Instead of cattle, running water, treadmill or windmill can be employed effectively. Similarly this arrangement could be used for milling the grains using wheels.
Evolution of different forms of rotating gears and other mechanical devices was only possible with the help of Wheels.
Coin Techniques :
Punch Marked Coins :
Most of the scholars are of the opinion that the punch marked coins are the earliest coins of India and these were minted in silver and later in copper.
However the earliest punch marked coins are those which have been attributed to the early historic phase of second urbanization in early India i.e. the 6th – 5th century BCE. These coins are termed as the Janapada coins or Mahajanapadas coins. Coins of these mahajanapadas are all minted using punch marked or archaic multiple small dies
Preparation of coin blanks : Two methods were used for preparing the coin blanks for minting punch marked coins: one is the sheet cutting technique and the other is the droplet method. The first was used mostly to mint square or rectangular coins. Some of the coins minted using this technique were of irregular shape as the sides were often clipped for adjusting the weight of the metal pieces as already discussed that the most important factor was the fixed weight of the coin.
the metal sheet was beaten with the help of a hammer to get the required or desired thickness of the coin blank. After uniformly beating the sheet into a required thickness, it was cut into small pieces with the help of a clipper. After adjusting the exact weight of the metal piece. (In case the metallic piece was found below the standard it might have been immediately discarded.)
After the preparation of such coin blanks these were then punched using single dies with hammer blow. These dies were small and thin long pieces of metal on the tip of these dies the symbol that was to be punched on the coin flan was engraved in negative so that when it was punched it would be in its positive form.Thus the use of multiple dies was required to get the number of symbols to be punched on the coin surface and hence this technique is also known as archaic multiple die striking technique.
For example in some cases 5 different punch were used on a single coin. Symbols slike, swastika, vedika, six arch mountain, nandipada, spoke wheel, human shapes etc were used as symbols.
Casting technique :
This technique was used by Tribal kingdoms in India such as Yaudheya, Kunindas, Malavas, Vrishnis etc and was remain in use only during (1st BC-2nd AD). Chinese coins were made with this technique.
In this technique the coin was produced with the help of moulds which were mostly made of clay and the device of the coins was impressed on this clay in negative so that when the coin was produced it would have the positive impression on it. This clay piece after receiving the impression was dried and baked to get a terracotta mould. Molten metal was poured in the mould and was allowed to cool down to get the coin. There was different mould for obverse and reverse side, these moulds were joined together with help of clay or any gum and then a hole was made on the top from which molten metal was poured. Later when the metal became cool and dry the joint was broken and the coin was taken out
multiple mould casting : Here several impressions were placed one after the other maintaining a certain gap and channels were cut between these to allow the molten metal to flow from one depression to the other once filled and this could make several coins in single attempt.
Die Striking Technique :
This is a technique introduced by the Bactrian Greeks or Indo Greeks in India and is the most popularly used technique for minting coins in the Indian subcontinent. In this technique a pair of dies are used for minting a coin. These coins were mostly round in shape and the coin blank was rounded. A group of coin blanks were rounded using a rounding instrument which received hammer blows with light strokes for rounding the coins blanks. Here as already mentioned two dies were used. The die on the top is the obverse or the upper die and the lower die is fixed on a wooden log or anvil and is known as the anvil die. The lower die was fixed to the anvil so that it does not move on striking. The hot coin blank is placed in between the two dies. Then another piece of metal block was placed on it to protect the upper die from getting damaged soon. Then a blow was given with a hammer for both the devices to get impressed on the coin blank.
Analysis of Structural remains :
Structural
remains found at sites and those discovered during excavation are of
great interest and significance. Simple structures constructed largely
of perishable materials may leave only minimal traces, usually post
molds, ghost wall, post holes behind.
Excavators must therefore be constantly alert for these traces—postholes, wall trenches, hearths, and packed earthen floors.
the
remains will usually be treated and recorded with the same care and in
the same detail as smaller features of special importance.
Floor :
One
of the easily recognizable features which an excavator can look forward
to while excavating a structure like house is a floor level.
Particular
attention should be given during the clearing of the floor to any
evidence of wall or roof materials. Often, sizable fragments of the
walls or roof fall to the floor and are preserved by one or another
agency. If the structure burned, charred fragments carefully excavated
and recorded may go a long
way toward reconstructing what the building looked like. Such remains should be photographed and drawn in situ.
Cache
and storage pits, burials beneath the floors, and subfloor deposits
should be diligently sought. The location of all artifacts, animal
bones, and other objects found on the floor must be precisely recorded
because their distribution may help locate various activities within the
structure.
The best procedure for excavating a floor once it has
been discovered is usually to remove the overburden to within a few
centimeters of the floor, where structural materials begin to appear or,
in any case, before floor-level artifacts and features appear. The
deposit immediately overlying the floor can then be excavated
meticulously with a trowel.
Floor of pre-historic period are comparatively hard to identify because of their primitive character and
close resemblance to the surrounding soil, mostly they were made of
beaten soil. but the flooring of the historical period were made of
solid materials like slabs or tiles are easier to recognize. The
artefact found on the floor are extremely valuable to determine the
cultural setting of a structure.
Postholes :
In
Archaeological term, a posthole is a deep cut (as puddle) on earth
surface to hold the timber (wooden log). They are usually deeper than
they are wide. The post holes are mainly recognizable as circular
burrow.
Importance of Postholes :
1. The shape and structure of the contexts within a posthole can also shed light on past activity.
2.
Archaeologist can draw conclusion and visulize the plot of the former
structures (based on wood) with the study of the position of post holes.
PAINTINGS :
Paintings are considered the supreme manifestation of one’s feelings and thoughts with the help of colour and brush. Paintings are not merely decoration but the subtle form of art work like other fine and aesthetic arts. the oldest paintings in India are the rock paintings of the early man. the Bhimbetka cave paintings which dates back to 15000 years old traditions of the later age paintings are those which are found on the pots of the Indus valley people which date back to 3rd century B.C.
There are many important dedicated Indian treatises on painting, traditionally called chitra.
-Chitrasutras, the part of Vishnudharmaottara Purana
-Chitra lakshana of Nagnajit on classical paintins, 5th AD
-Samarangana Sutradhara, Architecture and Paintings
-Aparajitaprchha, Architecture and paintings treaty
Ancient texts defined six important aspects of painting.
Rupabheda The knowledge of appearances.
Pramanam Correct perception, measure and structure.
Bhava Action of feelings on forms.
Lavanya Yojanam Infusion of grace, artistic representation.
Sadrisyam Similitude.
Varnikabhanga Artistic manner of using the brush and colours
The subsequent development of painting by the Buddhists indicates that these ' Six Limbs ' were put into practice by Indian artists, and are the basic principles on which their art was founded.
oldest Indian tradition of paintings are Ajanta caves which are made of volcanic rock. The Buddhist monks devoted their skill of hammer and chisel on the surface of the stone walls and painted the life and events of Lord Buddha and his teachings. Besides Ajanta, you can find the old specimen of paintings in Bagh and Ellora also
Murals = A mural is any piece of graphic artwork that is painted or applied directly to a wall, ceiling or other permanent substrate. Mural" comes from the Latin muralis, meaning "wall painting".
Fresco = A technique of Mural painting executed upon freshly laid lime plaster. This is wet surface, the dry power pigmet merges with the plaster and sets in the plaster deep and painting becomes integral part of the wall. The word fresco has originated from Italian word fresco which means fresh.
Tempera = In this method the painting is applied on dry plaster. Hence to paint on dry plaster the dry colour pigment needs binding material. Thus, the painting medium consist of colour pigments mixed with glue like substance, such as raisin, wax, oil, egg etc.Tempera is very long lasting and can survive for many centuries.
High-quality art with the help of tempera was created in Bagh Caves between the late 4th and 10th centuries and in the 7th century in Ravan Chhaya rock shelter, Odisha
COLOURS USED BY PRE-HISTORY ARTISTS:
1- shell (in this case an abalone shell) used to hold the pigment
2- a quartzite stone for grinding up the pigments like charcoal and ochre
3- the paint brush the artist used one of the thin bones, Hair, wood piece
4- red (which tends to be iron oxide: natural hematite or heated goethite)
5- black (charcoal or manganese oxides Pyrolusite)
6- yellow, Limonite, the mineral form of hydrated iron(III) oxide-hydroxide of varying composition
7- white, Limestone, calcite or crushed shells, mineral forms of calcium
8- brown, Manganite, the mineral form of manganese oxide-hydroxide (MnO(OH))
9- Dyes from various plants and animal bodies.
Ajanta Frescoes : The Ajanta frescos are classical paintings and the work of confident artists, without cliches, rich and full. They are luxurious, sensuous and celebrate physical beauty, aspects that early Western observers felt were shockingly out of place in these caves presumed to be meant for religious worship and ascetic monastic life. compositions are not laid out in horizontal bands like a frieze, but show large scenes spreading in all directions from a single figure or group at the centre. Ceiling are also painted with sophisticated and elaborate decorative motifs, many derived from sculpture.
Stone Sculpture :
Stone carving is an activity where pieces of rough natural stone are shaped by the controlled removal of stone and giving a desired shape. These earliest examples of the stone carving are the result of hitting or scratching a softer stone with a harder one, although sometimes more resilient materials such as antlers are known to have been used for relatively soft stone.
Ellora, in Maharashtra: There are rock-cut shrines of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain faiths. At Ellora, Kailash temple, carved from the hillside, dates from the ninth century
The temple is a massive sculpture cut out of a single piece of the hill
The artists started work from the top and carved downwards, beginning with the towering roof, the windows and then the doors
The process involves
1- Selection of a stone for carving, the choice of stone is based on various factors such as its availability. Its durability and the ease in carving of stone.
2- The sculptor artist begins with knocking off unwanted part of stone. This work is achieved by point chisel which is long and heavy piece and hammer. (a process known as "roughing out", "pitching", or "knocking off")
3- Once the rough shape of the statue is achieved, the sculptor uses other tools to refine the figure. A tooth chisel or claw chiesel is used and soft hammer. shallow strokes are use generally with the wooden mallet or light hammer.
4- Rasp and Rifflers are then used to imporove the quality of shape and making the stone smooth. Rasp is flat tool with coarse surface for making smooth stone. it also can be used to show folding of clothes and lock of hair.
5- polishing could be done with the help of fine grain sand & water. Some type of stone are also used for polishing purpose. Sandpaper
Stones used for carving Granite, Sandstone, Limestone, Steatie, Basalt, Soapstone, Marble
Analysis of Human remains :
Study of human remains contributes directly to the understanding of archaeology.
Cultural and biological history of the past.
Biological variation retrieved from the human skeletal remains.
The technological advancement could be linked with the human race.
Information like sex, age, diet, health status, height, genetic information etc. The information could be used to compare with the human remains from other region.
Skeleton remains provide information on human ecology, climate, environment, dietary pattern
to Analyse disease, medical skills of past man.
Analyses of various substance can give a hint of particular type of dietary pattern. Human bone collagen also helps in diet pattern.
FOSSIL
A
fossil is an organism that has been preserved by a process called
fossilization, is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any
once-living thing from a past geological age. This usually happens when
the organism dies and its body is buried in sedimentary rock, where it
is slowly replaced with minerals over time until it becomes a hard
mineral shell. Sometime, organism traces like path its follows or faeces
are also come under trace fossils. There are multiple ways for
fossilization.
worth of fossils in paleontology?
Paleontology
is the study of fossils and their relevance in understanding the
history of life on Earth. Paleontologists use fossils to better
understand taxonomy, evolution, ecology, and earth history.
The
fossils can be classified into 2 distinct categories further subdivided
into many based on specific criteria of formation. The types of fossils
are-
1. Body Fossils: Formed in the hard parts of the body like bones, claws and teeth.
-Direct Fossils: Formed by the burial of dead living organisms and their skeletons.
-Living Fossils: These are the fossils of prehistoric organisms that carry a strong resemblance with some present species.
-Resin Fossils: Formed by organisms getting trapped wholly inside the amber resin.
2. Trace Fossils : Trace
fossils consist mainly of tracks and burrows, but also include
coprolites (fossil feces) and marks left by feeding. Trace fossils are
particularly significant because they represent a data source that is
not limited to animals with easily fossilised hard parts, and they
reflect organisms' behaviours. Also many traces date from significantly
earlier than the body fossils of animals that are thought to have been
capable of making them. Whilst exact assignment of
-Ichno - Fossils: Formed because of the parts that do not belong to a living organism like a footprint, faeces, nests, eggs, etc.
-Chemo-Fossils: Fossils formed of chemical deposits of prehistoric life.
Analysis of Botanical material :
Study of pollen, phtoliths, seeds, barks, leaves and grains, wood, charcoal, fibers etc. the successful recovery of the fossilized form assist in analysis of palaeoenvironment.
Pollen analysis in a region can help us to visualize the type of vegetation and related environment. eg. pollen found from Horse shoe sites in Middle Ganga valley in UP suggest of excessive pollen of Grass like flora and less arboreal area resulting in visualization of swampy lands with small animals in early mesolithic period.
Pollen from floor levels or storage pots would give an idea about food habits.
to understand the past environment based on the vegetation types.
Charcoal : This is most common occurring at archaeological sites. the partial burnt or unburn woody portion reveals the composition of cells through with experts can get the information about species. This can help to date the site based on dendro-chronology or C-14 dating. further more this may help to understand the choice of prehistoric man for the wood for use as tool, weapon or house structure etc.
Analysis of Fauna :
The study of animal remains associated with archaeological sites has been classified into Zooarchaeology, Archaeozoology or faunal analysis. The importance of faunal analysis for archaeologist is to understand the food habits of the man.
- Role of animal in human diet
- assess the method of procurement and processing of animals
- availability of such animals in the region.
- usage of animals for various other purposes such as agriculture, transportation, trading etc
- to ascertain the pastoral or sedentary behaviour of human
- to understand the past environment based on animal remains.
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