301- PREHISTORY

  Course : 301 Prehistoric India

 

Unit - 1 = Palaeo-environment and Changing Culture, Geo Archaeology Palaeo-ontology,  Palaeo Botony, Environment change in prehistory.

Unit - 2 = Tool type and its technique of manufacture

Unit - 3 = Palaeolithic Cultures : Lower palaeolithic, Middle Palaeolithic, Distribution, stratigraphy and cultural distribution in Himalayan context (Extra Peninsular India) and Peninsular India

Unit - 4 = a) Mesolithic cultures : Alluvial plain adoptation, Horse shoe late sites, Sanddune landscape, plateau occupation. b) Neolithic cultures

Unit - 5 = Sites with special reference to Sohan, Belan, Narmada, Mahanadi, Son, Godawari and Kortalayar.

 

 

Prehistory :

Prehistory means the history of a region, a country or a nation, people or race, before it took to or knew writing. This history is not based on any contemporary or literary sources. Neither is available in the form of epigraphic evidences. It can simply be defined as an account of illiterate or preliterate people.

Prehistoric archaeology then will deal with that period of time in India of which we have no legend, no tradition and no object, save stone and bone implements and remains of animals.

Broadly, prehistoric period comprise the various stone ages. To study the history of this period people's legends, traditions, monuments, landforms soil and vegetation and animals may help to illustrate the story. This include geography, geology, physical anthropology, flora fauna and archaeology

History of Prehistory in India :

The first tool on ground was found a polished stone axe by Meadows Taylor at Lingsugur 1842,

Robert Bruce Foote Discovered the first Palaeolith at Pallavaram near Madras in 1863.

Ball in 1875 at four sites in Orissa,

Hackett at Bhutra on Narmada 1878 and

Wynne at Mungi Paithan on Godavari 1865 and

Cockburn in Singrauli basin, south Mirzapur 1883, They mostly found extinct animal bones.

Foote first started systematically search for Palaeolithic tools. He spent 40 years exploring sites in South India, Madras, Andhra, Mysore, Karnataka, Gujarat while doing his main work as geologist. He carefully catalogues is large collection of lithis tools. Published by the Madras Museum.

After 30 years of gap, 1930s two British Cammiade and Richards during their tours in present Andhra and Madras states had collection thousands of palaeoliths and other tone tools these were studid wby Burkitt who proposed a climate and typological corelation with that of Africa.

A contingent from Yale cambridge Expedition under the leadership of H. De Terra & T.T. Paterson studied geological, climatic, botanical and palaeontlogical survey in Kashmir, Punjab, Narmada valley and Kortalayar madraas valley and systematically and scientifically attempted to understand Indian history. Later the matter was took up by different Indian University along with ASI. ASI had raised a seperate sub department on prehistory.

Proto History:

The history of the period when civilization had known writing but their writing is unknown, and hence indus valley and other chalcolithic period.

Beginning of Proto history. In India After unearthing of Indus Civilization, 1917-20, prominent persons behind these discoveries N. G. Majumdar, Sir Aurel Stein, Hargreaves, John Marshall, S. R. Rao, Mortimer Wheeler

Later, ASI Further added other cultures Gangetic Valley, Rajputana, Saurashra, Central India Deccan, Mysore

Environmental Archaeology :

The various discovery of stone tools and associated animals such as lion, goat, sheep, ox, rhino, belong a time and clime which were not only of hoary antiquity but belonged to a time when the world was much different climatically and to some extent geographically. Thus, new disciplines of Palaeogeography, Palaeobotany, palaeoclimatology were formed to study the prehistoric environment. This is called environmental archaeology.

Palaeontology

Palaeontology is the study of prehistoric species, mostly ones that are extinct. Paleontology is the study of ancient life forms and their evolution. It focuses primarily on fossil data, using a variety of physical, chemical and biological techniques to analyze them, including the reconstruction of ancient environments and the examination of evolutionary relationships between different species.

scientific study of life of the geologic past that involves the analysis of plant and animal fossils, including those of microscopic size, preserved in rocks. It is concerned with all aspects of the biology of ancient life forms: their origin, shape and structure, evolutionary patterns, taxonomic relationships with each other and with modern living species, geographic distribution, and interrelationships with the environment.

History :

In 1815 the English geologist William Smith demonstrated the value of using fossils for the study of strata. About the same time, the French zoologist Georges Cuvier initiated comparative studies of the structure of living animals with fossil remains, which has been remarkable research to this day in the field of palaeontology.

It is divided into three main elements ---

• Paleontologists are primarily interested in fossils, organisms that have been preserved by a process called fossilization.

• Paleontology has helped us understand how various species evolved over time, including our own human lineage.

• Paleontologists can also use these insights to reconstruct what life on Earth was like long ago.

Paleontology lies between biology and geology since it focuses on the record of past life, but its main source of evidence is fossils in rocks. It is mutually interdependent with stratigraphy and historical geology because fossils constitute a major means by which sedimentary strata are identified and correlated with one another.

Palaeontology has some overlaps with archaeology which primarily works with objects made by humans and human remains, while paleontologist interested in characteristics and evolution of humans, plants, animals. This may help archaeologists to understand the ecology, environment and food habits of humans.

Paleontology incorporates knowledge from biology, geology, ecology, anthropology, archaeology, to understand the processes that have led to the origination and eventual destruction of the different types of organisms since life arose

BENEFITS

• Paleontology can help us understand the present time by providing insights into how different species have evolved over time. It can also show us how the environment has changed over time, and give us an understanding of which animal and plant species are related to each other.

• Paleontology has played a key role in reconstructing Earth’s history and has provided much evidence to support the theory of evolution.

• Data from paleontological studies, moreover, have aided petroleum geologists in locating deposits of oil and natural gas.

• Paleontology even contributes to astrobiology, the investigation of possible life on other planets, by developing models of how life may have arisen and by providing techniques for detecting evidence of life

• Paleontology has also been used to study climate change overtime periods, such as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 55 million years ago.

• Paleontologists have even been able to identify new species of animals and plants by studying their fossils.

• Deducing palaeontological evidence leads to discoveries about the behavior of an organism as well

Paleontology is traditionally divided into various sub disciplines:

Micropaleontology: Study of generally microscopic fossils, regardless of the group to which they belong. The study of fossils of organisms smaller than four millimeters is called micropaleontology. These organisms include algae, pollen, protists, etc. Microfossils are short-lived and are observed under the electron microscope.

Paleobotany: Study of fossil plants; traditionally includes the study of fossil algae and fungi in addition to land plants.

Palynology: Study of pollen and spores, both living and fossil, produced by land plants and protists.

Invertebrate Paleontology: Study of invertebrate animal fossils, such as mollusks, echinoderms, and others molluscs, arthropods, annelid worms and echinoderms . Organisms like mollusks, worms, corals, arthropods like cockroaches, shrimp, crab, echinoderms like sea stars, sponges, etc. are called invertebrates because they don’t have vertebrae or backbones.

An example that shows the importance of invertebrate palaeontology is that in the deserts of Nevada of the USA, palaeontologists found 200-million-year-old invertebrate marine fossils in large quantities that proved certain areas were covered by water during that particular period

Vertebrate Paleontology: Study of vertebrate fossils, from primitive fishes to mammals. The animals with a backbone are called vertebrates, and the study of fossils of the prehistoric vertebrates is called vertebrate palaeontology. An example of vertebrate palaeontological evidence is the discovery from the Pterosaurs’ bones that they could fly, as it was also discovered that Pterosaurs had hollow and light bones, much like modern birds which were found in their reconstructed skeletons.

Human Paleontology (Paleoanthropology): The study of prehistoric human and proto-human fossils.

Taphonomy: Study of the processes of decay, preservation, and the formation of fossils in general.

Ichnology: Study of fossil tracks, trails, and footprints.

Paleo ecology: Study of the ecology and climate of the past, as revealed both by fossils and by other methods.  

The study of fossils or rocks with impressions of ancient plants or parts of plants on them is called Paleobotany. From the preserved fossil data, diversity and evolution can be understood by paleobotanists.

Archaeobotany

paleoecology examines the interactions between different ancient organisms, such as their food chains, and the two-way interactions with their environments. For example, the development of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria caused the oxygenation of the atmosphere and hugely increased the productivity and diversity of ecosystems. Together, these led to the evolution of complex eukaryotic cells, from which all multicellular organisms are built.

Geo archeology and relationship with palaeontology and placo botany

Geoarchaeology and studies

Geoarchaeology is a field of archaeology that uses geological and geomorphological techniques to study the relationships between human cultures and the environment over time. This can include the study of soils, sediments, and stratigraphy, as well as the use of geophysical and geochemical techniques, to understand how human activity has affected the landscape.

Palaeontologists study fossils in order to learn about the history of life on Earth and how different species have evolved over time. While geoarchaeology and palaeontology both study the past, palaeontology focuses primarily on the biology and evolution of organisms, while geoarchaeology focuses on the interactions between humans and the environment.
Paleoethnobotany is the study of ancient plants and human use of plants. Paleoethnobotanists study the remains of plants, including seeds, fruits, wood, and charcoal, in order to learn about past human societies and their relationship with the environment. This can include information on the types of plants that were used for food, medicine, and other purposes, as well as information on past climate and environment. like the study of pollen from ancient sites in order to learn about past vegetation patterns and how human activity has affected them.

Pleistocene Period :

Pleistocene is a geologically identified epoh spanning from 25 Lakh Years to 11 thousand years. This can be separated from preceding Pliocene epoh right from the beginning of Villafranchian animals.

The Pleistocene is also known as “age of Man”, since origin and evolution of early Homo genus took place with in this epoh. The period played decisive factor in physical development of human. The period saw repeated glaciations which in turned affected the climate of the earth very unstable and extreme compare to today's climate.

The Pleistocene period is characterized with several glacial and inter-glacial ages, There was change in climatic conditions such as temperature and corresponding effect on environment which became responsible for the growth of different flora and fauna as well as different cultures behavior.

It is estimated that, at maximum glacial extent, 30% of the Earth's surface was covered by ice. Each glacial advance tied up huge volumes of water in continental ice sheets 1,500 to 3,000 metres (4,900–9,800ft) thick, resulting in temporary sea-level drops of 100 metres (300ft) or more over the entire surface of the Earth.

numerous cold phases called glacials (Quaternary ice age), or significant advances of continental ice sheets, in Europe and North America, occurred at intervals of approximately 40,000 to 100,000 years.

These glacial period had gap of 10,000-15,000 years known as inter-glacial periods. During a glacial, the glacier experiences minor advances and retreats. The minor excursion is a "stadial"; times between stadials are "interstadials"

Over 11 major glacial events have been identified, as well as many minor glacial events. These events are defined differently in different regions of the glacial range, which have their own glacial history depending on latitude, terrain and climate. it is generally incorrect to apply the name of a glacial in one region to another.

Corresponding to the terms glacial and interglacial, the terms pluvial and inter pluvial are in use (Latin: pluvia, rain). A pluvial is a warmer period of increased rainfall; an inter pluvial, of decreased rainfall. a pluvial is correspond to a glacial in regions not iced, and in some cases it does.

Depending upon different glacial periods, the Pleistocene can be divided into 3 parts

1. Lower Pleistocene

2. Middle Pleistocene

3. Upper Pleistocene

1909 - Penk and Brucksner (geologist) studied Alps region for pleistocene epoh and gave some nomenclature.

Lower Pleistocene : I Glacial & I Interglacial (Gunz) = 10 Lakh to 4.54 Lakh

Middle Pleistocene : II Glacial & II Interglacial (Mindel) = 4.54 to 3.50 Lakh

Upper Pleistocene : III Glacial & III Interglacial (Riss) + IV Glacial (Wurm) = 3.50 Lakh to 11000

Interglacial period is comparatively hot and humid climate, it also last longer while glacial period is comparatively cold and for a short period of time as compare with interglacial.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Divisions of geologic time

EON - An eon is the largest (formal) geochronologic time unit and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic eonothem.As of April 2022 there are three formally defined eons/eonothems: the Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic.The Hadean is an informal eon/eonothem, but is commonly used.

 

 

Name	Time Span	Etymology of name
Phanerozoic	538.8 to 0 million years ago	From the Greek words φανερός (phanerós) meaning 'visible' or 'abundant', and ζωή (zoē) meaning 'life'.
Proterozoic	2,500 to 538.8 million years ago	From the Greek words πρότερος (próteros) meaning 'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (zoē) meaning 'life'.
Archean	4,000 to 2,500 million years ago	From the Greek word αρχή (archē), meaning 'beginning, origin'.
Hadean	~4,600 to 4,000 million years ago	From Hades, Greek: ᾍδης, translit. Háidēs, the god of the underworld (the hell, the inferno) in the Greek mythology.

 

 

ERA - An era is the second largest geochronologic time unit and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic erathem.As of April 2022 there are currently ten defined eras/erathems.

 

Name	Time Span	Etymology of name
Cenozoic	66 to 0 million years ago	From the Greek words καινός (kainós) meaning 'new', and ζωή (zōḗ) meaning 'life'.
Mesozoic	251.9 to 66 million years ago	From the Greek words μέσο (méso) meaning 'middle', and ζωή (zōḗ) meaning 'life'.
Paleozoic	538.8 to 251.9 million years ago	From the Greek words παλιός (palaiós) meaning 'old', and ζωή (zōḗ) meaning 'life'.
Neoproterozoic	1,000 to 538.8 million years ago	From the Greek words νέος (néos) meaning 'new' or 'young', πρότερος (próteros) meaning 'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (zōḗ) meaning 'life'.
Mesoproterozoic	1,600 to 1,000 million years ago	From the Greek words μέσο (méso) meaning 'middle', πρότερος (próteros) meaning 'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (zōḗ) meaning 'life'.
Paleoproterozoic	2,500 to 1,600 million years ago	From the Greek words παλιός (palaiós) meaning 'old', πρότερος (próteros) meaning 'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (zōḗ) meaning 'life'.
Neoarchean	2,800 to 2,500 million years ago	From the Greek words νέος (néos) meaning 'new' or 'young', and ἀρχαῖος (arkhaîos) meaning 'ancient'.
Mesoarchean	3,200 to 2,800 million years ago	From the Greek words μέσο (méso) meaning 'middle', and ἀρχαῖος (arkhaîos) meaning 'ancient'.
Paleoarchean	3,600 to 3,200 million years ago	From the Greek words παλιός (palaiós) meaning 'old', and ἀρχαῖος (arkhaîos) meaning 'ancient'.
Eoarchean	4,000 to 3,600 million years ago	From the Greek words Ηώς (Ēṓs) meaning 'dawn', and ἀρχαῖος (arkhaîos) meaning 'ancient'.

 

 PERIOD - A period is a major rank below an era and above an epoch. It is the geochronologic equivalent of a chronostratigraphic system. there are currently 22 defined periods/systems


EPOH - An epoch is the second smallest geochronologic unit, between a period and an age. It is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic series.  there are currently 37 defined and one informal epochs/series.

AGE - An age is the smallest hierarchical geochronologic unit and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic stage. there are currently 96 formal and five informal ages/stages.

CHRON - A chron is a non-hierarchical formal geochronology unit of unspecified rank and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic chronozone. These correlate with magnetostratigraphic, lithostratigraphic, or biostratigraphic units as they are based on previously defined stratigraphic units or geologic features.

FOSSIL
A fossil is an organism that has been preserved by a process called fossilization, is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. This usually happens when the organism dies and its body is buried in sedimentary rock, where it is slowly replaced with minerals over time until it becomes a hard mineral shell. Sometime, organism traces like path its follows or faeces are also come under trace fossils. There are multiple ways for fossilization.

worth of fossils in paleontology?
Paleontology is the study of fossils and their relevance in understanding the history of life on Earth. Paleontologists use fossils to better understand taxonomy, evolution, ecology, and earth history.

The fossils can be classified into 2 distinct categories further subdivided into many based on specific criteria of formation. The types of fossils are-

1. Body Fossils: Formed in the hard parts of the body like bones, claws and teeth.
-Direct Fossils: Formed by the burial of dead living organisms and their skeletons.
-Living Fossils: These are the fossils of prehistoric organisms that carry a strong resemblance with some present species.
-Resin Fossils: Formed by organisms getting trapped wholly inside the amber resin.

2. Trace Fossils : Trace fossils consist mainly of tracks and burrows, but also include coprolites (fossil feces) and marks left by feeding. Trace fossils are particularly significant because they represent a data source that is not limited to animals with easily fossilised hard parts, and they reflect organisms' behaviours. Also many traces date from significantly earlier than the body fossils of animals that are thought to have been capable of making them. Whilst exact assignment of
-Ichno - Fossils: Formed because of the parts that do not belong to a living organism like a footprint, faeces, nests, eggs, etc.
-Chemo-Fossils: Fossils formed of chemical deposits of prehistoric life.

 

Sedimentations

Alluvial Deposit

Sediments

 PALAEO ENVIRONMENT :

A paleoenvironment is simply an environment that has been preserved in the rock record at some time in the past. paleoenvironmental analysis, or paleoecology, is to reconstruct the biological, chemical, and physical nature of the environment at the collection site at the time of deposition.

and why do we need to study the palaeoenvironment in archaeology ?
Paleoenvironmental information can be essential for understanding the environment before, during, and after site occupation, and it may provide insights into environmental changes that influenced technology, social structure, human subsistence, and settlement strategies and its effects upon human lives and cultures of the past. The reconstruction of palaeoenvironment is done with the help of technologies and data from various other branches of science such as palaeozoology, palaeobotany, geology, ecology, climatology etc

Evidence of palaeoenvironments and environmental change is primarily derived from the presence of indicator that could give ideas. such as the vegetation, pollen grains, animals, relative frequencies of key animals, their size, growth habits, and age classes, incremental growth structures, bone sizes and body part frequencies, all of which are also markers of changes in seasonal periodicity, site function, settlement patterns, capture technologies, and other cultural behaviors. looking into record that could give ideas.

What effect the palaeo environmental change made on the culture


Paleo-environmental change can have a significant impact on the culture of a society. For example, changes in the climate or the availability of resources can lead to changes in the way that people live and the technologies they use. In ancient societies that relied heavily on agriculture, changes in the climate or the availability of water could have a major impact on their ability to grow crops.

This could lead to food shortages, population movements, and even the collapse of civilizations. For example, the ancient Akkadian empire, which existed in Mesopotamia around 4500 years ago, collapsed in part due to a prolonged drought.
In hunter-gatherer societies, changes in the environment could lead to changes in the types of animals and plants that were available for hunting and gathering. This could affect their diet and way of life.

The environmental changes both affects flora an fauna, the development or evolution of flora and fauna heavily influenced by the environmental conditions.
Furthermore, environmental changes can also effect the way people think, behave and might have impact on their spiritual believes. For example, in societies that heavily relied on fishing and hunting, changes in the water levels or availability of fish could have led to changes in the religious beliefs and practices associated with those activities.
Overall, paleo-environmental changes can have a ripple effect on societies, impacting not just their economies and technologies, but also their cultures, religions, and belief systems.


EXAMPLE OF PALAEO ENVIRONMENT AND CHANGE IN CULTURE

An assessment of palynofacies and sediment data from a core sampled at Harshad estuary, Saurashtra, Gujarat, India was carried out for palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic reconstruction. Drawing on these data we evaluate their relation to cultural/economic changes during the early to late Harappan phases in the peripheral zone of southwest monsoon. Between ca. 5400-5100 yr BP, palynofacies and sediment particle size indicated a high terrestrial influx, interpreted as a period of higher monsoon precipitation. These proxies then indicated a protracted period of diminished freshwater inundation between ca. 5100-1400 yr BP. At the start of this period, archaeobotanical evidence from studied sites in the region also shows the shift in cropping pattern from large grain winter cereals during the Urban Harappan phases to millet based agriculture during the Post-Urban phase, indicating human adaptation in response to climate change.

Types of Stones

classification of Rocks

Sedementry Rock Formation

Igenious Rocks Identification

Metamorphic Rocks identification

Finding Semi Precious Rocks

Mineral Identification

STONE AGE TOOL

Stone tools file 1, file 2

 

Stone tool making techniques:

We can broadly group the stone tool making techniques of prehistoric periods into four. They are:
1) Percussion,
2) Blade,
3) Grinding and Polishing,
4) Shattering.


1) Percussion,

A) the direct percussion and B) the indirect percussion.

A) Direct percussion flaking technique: Flaking by striking directly with a hammer is known as direct percussion flaking technique.

i) Anvil technique or Block-on-Block technique,
ii) Stone hammer technique or Direct percussion technique,
iii) Cylinder hammer or Hollow hammer or bone/antler/hard wood hammer technique,
iv) Bipolar technique,
v) Step or Resolved or Controlled flaking technique,
vi) Clactonian technique,
vii) Levalloisian technique, and
viii) Discoid core or Mousterian technique.


Anvil/Block-on-Block technique – In this technique a lump of stone to be flaked is held in one or both hands and strikes directly against a projected edge of a fixed huge block of stone or anvil. This results to the detachment of a large massive flake from the stone lump in hand with a prominent bulb of percussion. Such large primary flakes could be used in making of tools like some of the handaxes and cleavers. Thus the block-on-block or anvil technique produces thick flakes as in the case of the course direct stone hammer technique.


Stone hammer technique – A suitable shaped stone is used as hammer and strikes at an inclined angle on the surface of a lump of stone and that result to positive bulb of percussion. On the core there is a hollow or concave surface corresponding to the shape and size of the detached flake. This concave surface is called negative bulb of percussion.



Cylinder hammer technique –
The advanced tool making technology developed in the early palaeolithic times is the soft hammer or cylinder hammer technique. In this case, the hammer is of a cylindrical bone or antler or hard wood; soft stone might be used. Tools of the Acheulian stage of the Lower Palaeolithic Culture show a very flat bulb of applied force. Experiments made by M. Coutier and Leakey (1960:42) have suggested that a cylinder hammer of soft stone, bone, or wood was used in detaching such flat flakes. It is most likely that initial shaping was done with the stone hammer technique and the cylinder hammer technique was used for the finishing process.



Bipolar technique – This technique of flaking is less common; but it is considered economical in the sense that with a single blow two flakes could be detached simultaneously. For this, the core is placed upon another hard rock and strikes with the hammer on the upper free end of the core. Due to the rebound of the force from the underlying rock and the force of the hammer blow on the upper end two flakes one from each opposite end have been removed on the same face of the core



Stepped or Resolved/controlled flaking technique – Stepped or resolved or controlled flaking technique is a further advanced secondary flaking technology developed during the early palaeolithic cultural phase. In this case the hammer does not strike at an inclined angle to the surface but inward the core with a controlled blow or force, so that the penetrating force does not pass through but ends inside the core to snap off a flake abruptly leaving a step on the core. Step flaking results in general short flakes, and mainly employed in secondary flaking.


Clactonian technique – The clactonian technique coined after the type site at Clacton-on-sea, England was a technique used by the Lower Palaeolithic people for obtaining a flake. In short it is a technique of detaching a large flake for making flake tools. Clactonian flakes could also be obtained by using the anvil or stone hammer technique. In this case a naturally flattened surface is used as striking platform of the hammer; such flakes will have a prominent bulb of percussion on the main flake surface near the striking platform, and the angle between the main flake surface and the striking platform is always greater than 90 degree or roughly 120 degree.



Levalloisian technique – This is also a further advanced technique of obtaining a flake to make tools. The main characteristic of this technique is the extensive preparation of the core and the striking platform (faceted striking platform) by using stone hammer. Only one flake could be obtained from such a prepared core and the flake resembles the form of the tortoise shell. It is so known as tortoise core technique. Thus Levalloisian technique is an artistic and skillful method of preparing flakes and cores that was first noticed from Levallois Perret, Paris.


Discoid core /Mousterian technique – This is also a prepared core technique for obtaining a flake. In this case the prepared core resembles a circular or disc shape. Any one of the flake scars on the core serves as striking platform and a flake with 2 to 4 truncated flake scars on the dorsal surface could be detached by striking with a stone hammer. The flake scar left on the core after detaching the first flake could also be served as striking platform for detaching another flake, thus several flakes could be obtained from a single discoid core. Hence, Discoid core or Mousterian technique is considered to be more economical than the Levalloisian technique



B) Indirect percussion technique – It is one of the methods of obtaining a blade by the prehistoric man. In this case, the prepared cylindrical core is not struck directly by the hammer but through a punch. The pointed end of the punch is fixed on the striking platform of the core and then hammered on the other end of the punch. This resulted to the removal of a thin blade that exhibits numerous closely placed prominent ripples on the main flake surface


Tools types

2. BLADE TECHNIQUES:

Blade technique – This is the technique known to man for the first time during the Middle Palaeolithic. By this method long, narrow, thin and parallel sided flakes have been produced in different parts of the world (during the Palaeolithic period).

A blade is a narrow flake with nearly parallel sides and mostly thin and flat ventral surface. The dorsal surface is represented by at least two parallel flake scars. The length of the blade exceeds twice its breadth. The cross-section is somewhat triangular.

Advance techniques for Blade preparation:

I. Pressure flaking technique/Blade by pressure
II. Fluting technique and /Blade by percussion
III. Baking or blunting



I. Pressure technique – Pressure flaking technique is another advanced flaking technique developed during the Upper Palaeolithic culture to prepare beautiful tools like the laurel-leaf and willow leaf points. On the other hand it is a technique used by the prehistoric man in secondary flaking or obtaining a blade. In this case also an intermediary implement served as punch is used to exert force on the core by applying pressure, but not by hammering.


II. Fluting technique: It was used for making blade tools. In this technique, starting with suitably prepared cylindrical nodules, a series of uniformly thin parallel sided blades were detached in rapid succession by applying vertical pressures on edges. The blades could be flat as well as crested the blades produced by fluting were, however, crested with multiple flake scars transversely across the crest.
some scholars prefer to call this technique as punching technique. In short, in this technique a rough surface is made on the core, thereafter a small platform is prepared at one end. Against this is placed a short wood punch and a tap is given with the help of a mallet.


III. Backing or blunting:
Blades manufactured by fluting technique were further retouched to form specific tools. Since every blade had two readymade sharp edges, retouching in these blades were mainly done to blunt any specific area out of the two already present borders. These blunting were done mainly to afford a firm hafting of the blades on handles. A blunted edge is placed inside the groove of the handle when a force was applied to cut anything with the other sharp edge of the blade.




3. GRINDING AND POLISHING – This technique is the characteristic feature of making the Neolithic tools.
Neolithic culture is characterized by the making of smoothed surface stone tools generally known as celts. These smooth surface tools are produced by grinding and polishing method/technique. This technique has four stages like chipping, pecking, grinding and finally polishing.
Pecking is also another stage of this technique adopted by the Neolithic man in making the celt out of very hard and tough rock that is difficult in flaking. In this method, the maker used a very narrow ended hammer (like the prism edge of the quartz) to peck all over the surfaces of the stone, probably shaped pebble.


4) SHATTERING TECHNIQUE: This type of tool making technique is very simple. In this technique, the manufacturer holds the suitable stone with his hands (both) and rises to a certain height and then releases the same so as the rock breaks into pieces when it hits the ground. The flakes/rock pieces thus produced do not possess either negative or positive bulb of percussion. From such flakes any required size can be selected and trimmed further by using either grinding or stone hammering . POPULAR IN SOUTH EAST ASIA


Primary flaking technique – After selecting a suitable piece of rock, the prehistoric man will start flaking to get the conceptualized form of the tool. All such flakes detached for getting the desire shape and size of tools are primary flakes. and the techniques involved in flaking are known as primary flaking techniques. the main purpose of the primary flaking is to get the desired shape and size of the tool.

Secondary flaking technique – Secondary flaking are those further flaking, after obtaining the desired shape and size, for producing sharp working edge and the suitable handholding place of the tools.
 

PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD IN INDIA :


Based on Stone tools and other technological evolution the Prehistoric period in India is divided into 3 broad categories.

1. Palaeolithic Period :
2. Mesolithic Period :
3. Neolithic Period :


Palaeolithic Period is further subdivided into 3 major categories based on size and shape improvements of stone tools over the period time.

Hence,

Early Palaeolithic Period in India – 6.7 Lakh to 1.5 Lakh Years ( This period is generally associated with Home Habilis/Homo Erectus), At Bori Maharastra Date goes back to as early as 14 Lakh years.

Middle Palaeolithic Period in India – 1.5 Lakh Years to 40,000 Years ( This period is associated with Homo Sapience)

Upper Palaeolithic Period in India – 40,000 Years to 10,000 Years ( This period is associated with Homo Sapience Sapience)

Mesolithic Period in India – 10,000 Years to 7,000 Years -

Neolithic Period in India – 7,000 Years to 4,000 Years -


Earliest tools found in India on the basis of Palaeomagnetic test are upto 2 Million Years (MYA) as per Rendell & Denell. These earliest tools are found from Dina, Jalalpur (Jhelum) area (1.2=2 MYA)


Some of the Earliest Paleolithic sites in Indian subcontinent

1. Sohan Valley (Riwat, Rawalpindi) – H. DeTerra and Patterson of Yale cambridge mission (1939) explored the area and found complete sequence of Palaeolithic tools from lower to upper period.
2. Belan valley (Prayag to Varanasi) – Complete sequence From Lower Palaeolithic to Chalcolithic
3. Bhimbetka – Early Palaeolithic to Mesolithic.
4. Patne, Jalgaon – Middle Palaeolithic to Mesolithic
5. Bori, Pune – Lower Palaeolithic tools (.67 MYA)


Early Paleolithic Period in India

Early (lower) Palaeolithic period is characterized by three types of tools, all are bulkier and heavy, large in size.
1. Heavy pebble tools
2. Chopper Chopping tools
3. Hand Axes (Acheulian tools)
Generally associated with Australopithecus/Homo Habilis/Homo erectus

Sohan Valley – Tools found are Pebble Based Chopper-Chopping tools. These are heavy and spread through out Himalayan and north west region.

Acheulian tools – Hand axe cleaver found in Madras, South India, Clactonian or Abbevilian

Raw Material used in India ( Early Paleolithic), However sizes and forms are all same technique.

Hilly region - Quartzite
Maharastra – Basalt
Hunsgi, Karnataka – Limestone


MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC SITES IN INDIA (40,000-15000 BP)


Nevasa site – Jasper, Chalcedony, silicious rock found but no quartzite found

Bundelkhand site (Lalitpur, Jhansi, Sagar) – Here lower Paleolithic site also used Jasper, Chalcedony for hand axe, cleaver, chopper

Bhimbetka (Raisen) – Middle Paleolithic site used new variety of tools but material used remain same.

Some characterstics of Middle Palaeolithic period tools

Mousterian tools with 4 divisions
1. Medium size flakes
2. Thinner & Smaller compare to early palaeolithic period
3. Fine grained silicious material – Agate, Jasper, Chert, Chalcedony
4. Hand Axe and cleaver are rare
5. Variety of scrapers and borer, points
6. Levallosian techniques used for making tools in which the core was first trimmed to obtain flat surface then flakes of the desired size were produced by soft hammering symmetrical and thiner flakes were obtained.


History of middle palaeolithic period:
Second Gravel – in 1959, Bridget & Subbarao said, first two palaeolithic ages were found in India but no upper Palaeolithic period found. These two periods were named as Early Stone age, Middle Stone age. Prof. V. N. Mishra (1960) however  raised serious question on naming middle stone age

1. Early stone age
2. Middle Stone age – Prof.  V. N. Mishra 1960 Decline it, since its name indicated Mesolithic he called it middle Palaeolithic


1972 – H. D. Sankalia Middle Stone Age
1970 – G. R. Sharma – while excavating Belan River found  – 3 Gravel (19000 years). Blade Found in Upper Palaeolithic
1965 – Sankalia found flake tool in Nevasa, Pravara  rivers (Jasper) although he did not called it as middle Palaeolithic then he found some other site Surya Gaon, Nadur Madhmeshwar…. He found a middle Palaeolithic point In the forehead bone of an extinct Bovine,
But finally he found middle Palaeolithic tool  at Dattavadi, Pune. Organic fossil found between 33,000 – 36,000 years layer. Only then he could safely recognized middle palaeolithic period in Pan India.

Mrs Allchin, Ahmad Hasan Dani  studied tools found from  Sanghao cave made of Quartzite and flake type called as middle Palaeolithic and  hence, it was declared as Pan Indian middle Palaeolithic.

Examples of Middle Palaeolithic sites : Jwalapuram Kurnool Toba Ash deposit,  Kalpi (Orai), Shaliguru river Andhra Toba Ash, Atirampakkam, Tippenhalli Malprabha, Sanghao cave

In Indian context, both lower Palaeolithic and Middle Palaeolithic tools have flakes. Hence it is hard to decide when lower ends and middle begins.


Type of tools Associated with middle Palaeolithic period (Size  6-8 cms) 

1. Borers – Levallois type

2. Side Scrappers – i) Single, ii) Double, iii) Convergent Levallois

3. End Scrappers

4. Hollow Scrappers
5. Scrapper cum Borer – Levallois

6. Point – Levallois


According to Sankalia
-There is no total change in type of  material
-Early Palaeolithic sites were near water sources
-Later time people started  to migrate more deeper areas and found near fine grained material.


Regional Variation –
1) EASTERN BELT -     Odisha, Andhra (Early 75000 years) inner evolution and endogenus occurance = Raw material doesn’t change over the period of time, not fine in nature, Borers, side Scrappers are majority and very less or poor  points found.
2) WESTERN BELT -      Maharashtra, Malprabha North Karnataka (30000 years), exogenous occurrence = Very rich in Borers, Levalloin side scrappers,  point change in raw material
3) CENTRAL INDIA : Bhimbetka, Kalpi, Didwana, =  No change in raw material



UPPER PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD :
Human had evolved  in the form of Homo Sapience in Europe

 i) Grimaldi, ii) Cro-Magnon, iii) Chancelate

Different types of tools such as Perigodian, Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalaenian
-Further reduction in size & weight of the tool
-All tools were based on flakes
Burin – Chisel made on Blade like flake sharp. Straight cutting edge Knife were elongated flake with sharp edges. Techniques employed in making chisel type tools was pressure flaking
Arrow head and Harpoon are also type of tools made in this period.

According to Bridget Allchin, Lighter tools were preferred which could be carried to a longer distances.

Use of bone – only reported from Muchchatta Chintamani Gavi at Kurnool, AP in the form of scrapper and chisel.
And the stone used were always fine grained silicious material.

IN 1970, G. R. Sharma demonstrated in Belan Valley 3rd Gravel layer (19,000 BCE)  only blade tools In Indian context we do not find any fossil of Homo Sapience from the site only  fossil of late Erectus found from Hathnora, Narmada Valley

M. L. K. Murthi in 1970s, found from Renuguntta, Rellakallave river, AP. Tools of late Pleistocene era, they were finely grained tools, looked very much like European Upper Palaeolithic tools like Origancian, Gravician, 6% Burin, 13% retouched, Large number of backed blade and large number of Hand scrappers (26,000 BCE)

There are two issue in the tools
2.4.1. From where these tools originated?  (Exogenus or Endogenus)
2.4.2.  How did they originated
If there were migration from Africa Baluchistan. It must have done through Rajasthan. We find upper Palaeolithic development  this means that modern man entered but where did it go we see Madhya Pradesh but they did not stay along Narmada. Bhimbetka, Belan
Crossing Narmada they settled according to Godavari Valley, Adilabad site (Kaimur range) is quite later.
We do not find upper Palaeolithic range all over India. While Lower and middle Palaeolithic cover entire Pleistocene range.

SETTLEMENT & SUBSISTENCE PATTERN IN UPPER PALAEOLITHIC & RELIGIOUS BELIEF

Settlement Pattern was first used in archaeology by the American scholar G. R. Willey (1953) in prehistoric study of Perk, South America
1) Open Air Shelters, Caves
2) Higher river Banks, hill terrace, perennial water, enough plant and game animals, raw material for tools
3) Rock Shelters – seasonal or temporary comping sites.
4) Site catchment Analysis – Vita Finzie and Higgs (1970) in studies of prehistoric economy of Palestine region propound the concept that early humans could not have walked more than 10 km away from their base to exploit  foods.
5) Dwelling – slab piece, granite block & post holes suggest hte use of some thatched roof structure
6) Craft activity suggest from technique of tools making finer & sharper stone tools
7) Religious – bone artefact, triangle stone at Belan Valley.


MESOLITHIC CULTURE :

Phase of transition from the preceding hunting and food gathering stage of the Palaeolithic period to that of farming and herding in the succeeding Neolithic period.
Earliest evidence in 1867-68 by ACL Carlyle discovered large number of Microliths in cave & rock shelters in Kaimur range, Mirzapur
H. D. Sankalia 1950 – Langhanaj and Gujarat significant improvement in tool technology and life pattern with some continuity of earlier traditions.
Period : Beginning of Holocene age (10000 BP to 6000 BP),  change in climate from cold to warm & wet gradual recession of the glaciers. This formed large rivers which led to growth of forests and vegetation and swift smaller animals.
Characteristic tools of the period was microlith (small size tools of different shape & sizes hafted on wood & bone. Rise of composite tools like Knife, Arrowhead, Spearhead, daggers sickle, saw.
Domestication of animal seen in Adamgarh and Bagor
Cultivation was also visible in later period of Mesolithic
 Significant growth in population due to change in demographic profile, Much larger number of sites observed,  Microliths were observed in every rock shelters in Bhimbetka
Alluvial plains of the Ganga which was devoid of human settlements in earlier phase had now settlements, where raw materials was not available, this is due to population growth.
Due to availability of Flaura and Fauna, the availability of food increased for the man and as a result his health, long life also improved.
Evidence of Burial, ritual, disposal of dead also seen in the period. Grave goods such as bone, beads, rings put along with the dead in some graves gives ideas about belief, ritual and craft activity.
Earliest rock paintings go upto Mesolithic period which gives the artistic and aesthetic taste of the Mesolithic man


REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION :
All over India except i) region of North East, ii) Delta of Bengal, iii) Punjab Plains, iv) Gangetic plains beyond Allahabad, v) Kerla   = Reason perhaps no tool material, heavy rainfall, Dense vegetation.

TOOLS AND TECH OF MESOLITHIC PEOPLE

Tools were prepared from cylindrical & rectangular core by pressure flaking with help of wooden or bone hammer.
This was a technological improvement Pressure technique economized the precious raw material and produced more blades in lesser time. Produced a variety of geometric type microliths.
Also change in raw material (except south India ) Chert, Chalcedony, Agate, Jasper etc were used primarily.
i) Lunates (Crescents), ii) Trapezes, iii) Triangle mostly between 1-5 cms
These tools were applied on wooden frame to get serrated edge for cutting like composite tool to serve as saw or a sickle. It was easy to replace single defective piece from the frame. Hence, could be used for a longer period of time.

Small Non-geometric tools – scrappers, Burins
Other tools like, Hammer stone, perforated discs, ring stone, querns, tools and ornaments  made of bones and antlers, erring, necklace, arrowhead, blades, knives.

LIFE AND SUBSITENCE PATTERN  -- HUNTING METHODS, DOMESTICATION, AGRICULTURE
STRUCTURAL ACTIVITY MATERIAL CULTURE DWELLING
POTTERY
CLOTHING AND ORNAMENTS
RECREATION
BURIALS AND SPIRITUAL ASPECTS, BELIEF SYSTEMS
AESTHETIC ACTIVITIES

 

MESOLITHIC CULTURE

    
    The Mesolithic period coincides with the onset of  milder climatic conditions with the commencement  of the Holocene Period (10,000 BC), which is characteristic of warmer climatic conditions.  With this swing towards  warmer climatic conditions the face  of the earth changed, and with it also affected were the flora (vegetation) and fauna (animals).  Man too reacted  positively to these changes for  his survival.  This resulted in  1) Modification  of his tool equipment and 2) modification of his living pattern.
    Till recently the very existence of the Mesolithic culture in India was in doubt because of the paucity of stratified evidence.  But the discoveries in Belan valley, Chittor district, Shorapur doab in Karnataka, Rajasthan and Gujarat have provided enough gleanings to reconstruct Mesolithic evidence in India.

    Depending on the evidence from different sites, Mesolithic culture can be divided into four distinct phases. 
    1. non-geometric tools (epi-palaeolithic) 12,000-8,000 BC.
    2. geometric pre-pottery stage (Early Mesolithic-I) 8,000-3,000 BC.
    3.  geometric tools with pottery (early Mesolithic-II) 5,000-1,500 BC;
    4.  smaller microliths with precision (Advanced Mesolithic or Proto-Neolithic)               2,000-1,000 BC.                      
    The above division is based on the sequence observed primarily at Chopani Mando and attested at other places.

THE TOOLS
    The stone tools prepared in Mesolithic period are very small and  hence known as ‘microliths’ meaning  ‘tiny stones’.  Some of the forms which could  be identified amongst these tools are the blades, points, lunates, trapezes, scrapers, arrowheads, geometric and non-geometric tools.  For the  production of these tools fine-grained material like chert chalcedony, agate, jasper, etc was utilized.  Often these microliths were used as combination tools by fixing several of them in curved wood or bone or to produce a barbed arrowhead.

LIFE AND SUBSISTENCE PATTERN:
    Hunting and gathering vegetal foods are the  two main occupations of the Mesolithic people.  More and more dependence on the vegetal food was probably one of the reasons behind forcing the human communities to have fixed settlements  from Mesolithic period onwards.  In this connection the example of  Mahadaha in the Ganga valley is worth mentioning.  Here it was noticed that very large number of quern, muller, anvil, hammer, etc. have been found which indicate that the people exploited fully the vegetal products.  The microlithic tools like blades and scrapers are well suited for processing vegetables.  The presence of  hearths in the habitations point to consumption of roasted food.  The evidence points out that man depended more on vegetal food rather than on animal meat.

HUNTING METHODS
    The use of composite tools revolutionized hunting, fishing and food gathering.  The Mesolithic paintings at Bhimbetka throw interesting light on the contemporary hunting practices and the kinds of weapons used in hunting.  The bow and arrow, barbed spears and sticks were used in  hunting.  Ring stones were used as stone clubs.  Mechanical traps were also laid to trap the animals.  Masks in the form of animal heads such as of rhinoceros, bull, deer and monkey were used as disguises to deceive the game.  In one of the scenes animals are  shown falling down a cliff.  Probably animals were driven down a cliff and done to death.  The paintings show men carrying dead animals suspended on a wooden bar. 

DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS:
    Animal bones have been reported from almost all the excavated sites of the Mesolithic settlements, and an analysis of these bones indicated that the bones of the domesticated varieties of animals like  cattle, sheep and goat constitute nearly fifty percent. Animal confinements and hoof marks are found at Chopani Mando and kholdihwa.

AGRICULTURE:
The full-fledged agricultural activity witnessed in Neolithic period must have had its roots in the Mesolithic period itself.  The storage pits of this period probably indicate some incipient form of agriculture.  Seeds of wild variety of rice have been found embedded in the lumps of burnt clay at Chopani Mando.

STRUCTURAL ACTIVITY:
    Evidence of structural activity in the form of hutments, paved floor or wind screens come from a number of Mesolithic sites.  The houses were roughly circular or oval on plan with postholes around them.  Some hutments had stone paved floors.  Paved floors and wattle have been noticed at Bagor.  The Mesolithic folk at Bhimbetka too made  floors with flat stone slabs. 
    
POTTERY:
    Pottery has been reported from a number of excavated sites like Langhnaj, Bagor, Nagarjunakonda, Chopani Mando, etc.  Pottery came to be  associated with the Mesolithic culture after the introduction of geometric tools.  At most of the sites the sherds were very small and it was very difficult to make out shapes.  Shallow and deep bowls with featureless rim are the most popular types.   Pottery was wholly hand-made and usually coarse grained with incised and impressed designs rarely. 

CLOTHING AND ORNAMENTS:
    The human figures in the rock shelter paintings are shown wearing a loin cloth.  Some of the figures are elaborately decorated with ornaments, headgear, feathers and waistbands, shell, ivory and bone beads also are  evident from sites. 

RECREATION:
    Mesolithic man in rejoicing moods  is to be seen in the paintings at Bhimbetka.  Some of the dances may be of ritual significance.  The musical instruments depicted are the blowpipes and horns. 

BURIALS AND SPIRITUAL ASPECTS:
    The spiritual side of the Mesolithic man is very well represented by a rock-painting of  a family mourning the death of a child at Bhimbetka.  The dead were very carefully buried.  At Langhnaj human skeletons were found with quartzite pebbles which are not locally available.  These were probably brought from the bed of  Sabarmati 15 to 20 kms away. 
    Mesolithic burials have been excavated at Dorthy Dweep and Jambudweep Rock shelters in the Mahadeva hills in MP.  Langhnaj, Baghai Khor and Lekhahia in the Mirzapur dt. UP and Sarai Nihar Rai and Mahadaha UP.  The evidence from  different sites indicates that  four types of burials were prevalent. 
    1.  Extended burial;            2.  Flexed (folded) burial;
    3.  Fractional (secondary) burial)     4.  Double Burials.

    Multiple burials were witnessed at Sarai Nihar Rai and Mahadaha.  Mesolithic people interred objects like microliths, animal bones and beads along with the dead.  Probably the double burials indicate the development of family units, consisting of male and female.  In that case family set-up is one of the most important contributions of the Mesolithic period  to the modern world.

AESTHETIC ACTIVITIES:
    The Mesolithic folk had left behind good evidence of their artistic pursuits in the form of painted rock-shelters.  Such rock paintings were noticed in the Mirzapur district UP. And at Bhimbetka near Hoshangabad in MP.  The paintings deal primarily with animals which are shown standing, moving, running, grazing, etc.  The paintings are generally executed in red ochre but sometimes bluish green, yellow or white color also have been used.

CONCLUSION:
    From the above discussion, it is evident  that the Mesolithic period represents the transformation of man from a savage to a civilized society.  The family system, domestication of animals, shelter building, cooking in containers and incipient agriculture are the important contributions of this period.

ALLUVIAL PLANE ADOPTATION

From early Palaeolithic period man has preferred to live in riverbanks because of the availability of water and games. Numerous Mesolithic sites therefore have been recovered from the alluvial plains. The Birbhanpur site, for example, is located at Damodar’s alluvial plain in West Bengal. Paruldanga kopai valley in Birbhum, Durgapur in Bankura was first discovered by N. G. Majumdar in 1939.

Birbhanpur (West Bengal):

A site on the river Damodar near Durgapur railway station. Birbhanpur was excavated by B.B.Lal in 1957. The site is considered non-geometric because trapeze and triangles are not found. Borers, points, scrapers, and burins made on milky quartz are found. Typologically the Birbhanpur industry seems more archaic as big flake and blade tools dominate it. Almost 40 percent of the total industry is composed of scrapers, borers and burins taken together.
Some post-holes were also claimed to have been discovered but no hearth, bones or human burials could be found.

SAND DUNES LANDSCAPE PLATEAU OCCUPATION

In Gujarat and Marwar hundreds of dunes of varying sizes are found on the alluvial plain. Some of them enclose a shallow lake or pond, which were the great sources of getting aquatic creatures. The dunes themselves were covered with thorny scrub bushes; many animals used to live there. Naturally the Mesolithic inhabitants in sandy dune faced no difficulty in collection their food


Bagor (Rajasthan):

It is situated on the bank of river Kothari near Bhilwara town. It is a sand dune with deposits of about 150 cm. It is divided into three phases, of which Phase I corresponds to Mesolithic. The site was discovered by V.N.Mishra in 1967.

Phase I - it shows profusion of animal remains and microliths, Phase I has C-14 5000-2800 BC. Ph. II - Copper tools, Ph.III Iron tools

The site is rich in cultural materials, as several thousand tools. The habitational floor was stone-paved. The microliths are the tiniest one in India, the majority of them being 1.5-2 cm in length, including a good number of geometric microliths. The main raw material employed was quartz and chert.

The animals identified from the bone remains are cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, pig, chital, fox, etc. and also aquatic fauna like tortoise and fish. Faunal discovery decreases greatly in other phases. 80% are domesticated species.

One skeleton in extended form with head towards the west was also found from Phase I.
 

Tilwara (Rajasthan):

This is another site in Rajasthan forming the western limit of Mesolithic in India. The tools found from the site are trapeze, lunate, points, PS blades, etc. Fire hearths, Charred bones, and other habitational remains show early Mesolithic site.

Langhnaj (Gujarat):

On the western banks of Sabarmati in the Mehsana district of Gujarat, there are scores of sites consisting of consolidated sand dunes. One of these, Langhnaj has been studied in detail. The tool types include lunates, trapezes, scrapers, borers, blunted backed knife, burins, etc. A huge rhinoceros shoulder blade discovered here was used as an anvil for manufacturing microliths.

The animal remains are identified as cattle, buffalo, wild boar, deer and nilgai.

The most interesting remains are human skeletons, 14 in number. The legs were folded backward and tied before burial. Some skulls have deep cuts across the forehead. It was earlier suggested that they might have been cannibals. Later it was argued that the cracks may have been caused due to weathering of Osseous tissues. It has been dated as being contemporary of Harappan Civilization by the Radio-Carbon method.

Teri (Tamilnadu):

A group of 11 sites of microlithic clusters occurs along the fossilized sand dunes in the Tinnevelly district of Tamil Nadu. These are usually referred to as Teri sites. It is believed that older transgressions of the sea had caused the formation of these sand dunes. One of the transgression beaches has also been dated by radiometric technique to nearly 5000 B.C.

Microlithic occupation took place once these dunes were in the process of consolidation. The dunes provided a sheltered camping place near the sea, lagoons, and estuaries suitable for fishing and fowling. This industry is of a coastal Mesolithic fishing community. Microliths from this area were first recovered by Foote. Subsequently Aiyappan made a substantial collection from one of these sites called Sawyepuram. Finally Zeuner made a detailed report of these sites.

The industry is prepared on chalcedony, Quartz and light brown chert and fossil wood and shows one of the most primitive features in typological sense. Disc or discoid cores, flakes shaped into various kinds of points, side scrapers, thumb nail scrapers and borers, besides burins form the majority of the industry.

Lunates prepared on flakes and points and arrow­heads prepared by bifacial pressure flaking are some of the other significant features of this site. Microlithic types include lunates, backed blades and pen knives besides numerous blades and fluted cores.

 
It has been argued that the Teri industry shows closeness to Sri Lanka microliths in several significant features-specially in the tradition of preparing bifacially pressure flaked points. The Bandarawela factory site in Sri Lanka in this regard is specially mentioned.

HORSE SHOE LAKE SITES :

The entire Ganga valley region bound by the Gomati in the north and Ganga in the south includes a large number of Horseshoe/ox bow lakes (these are known as TAL), which are one of the dominant physical features of this region. eg. Gaurai Tal, Katan Tal, Kondra Tal, Kondrajit Tal etc. These lakes formed due to the phases of withdrawal of river Ganga to its present channel. Earlier these sites were acccumulated by river Ganga during late Pleistocene and early Holocene epoh but then after river shrinked to its original position and these small lakes were left behind.
The analysis of pollen collected from the horseshoe lakes site suggests that there have been four phases of vegetation development in the last 8,000 years.
Abundance of grasses indicates to an open savannah forest. while Arboreal vegetation is poor. These low height forest were inhabited by herbivourous animals such as deer, antelope, nilgai, hare, wild boar etc. while these region are rich in aquatic fauna such as fish, tortoise etc large mammels like elephants, rhino, bison and pig inhabited shores of swampy lakes and rivulets.

Stone age sites of Ganga valley are situated in the banks of horseshoe lakes. and categorized under 3 mesolithic phases on the basis of artifacts found in different geological formations.

- Epipalaeolithic Phase - Transitional phase between upper paleolithic and mesolithic. Total five sites = Pratapgarh (3), Prayag (1), Varanasi (1) The artifacts of this phase scatters in primary context and found from the hard-plastic clay deposition, which was a Late Pleistocene-early Holocene formation and probably formed in a wetter climate. retouched blades, backed blades, notches,  points/drills, burins, scrapers, lunates ( Chert, Chacedony)

- Early Mesolithic phase (Non-Geometric microliths) - Pratapgarh (157), Sultanpur (5 sites), Jaunpur (5 sites), Varanasi (4 sites) and Prayagraj (1 site), Chert Chalcedony, Agate, Carnelian

-Mesolithic Phase (Geometric microliths) - Pratapgarh (18 sites), Jaunpur (3 sites) and Prayagraj/Allahabad (1 site), Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha, Damdama sites. LIthic, Bone artefacts, hearths and floors, biological remains, burial, ornaments etc

Pit hearths of oval or circular in shape with and without plaster are found. Morphologically, these hearths are circular or oblong shallow pits. Most of the hearths are having burnt clay lumps, charred bone fragments and ash inside them.

Charred millet-like grain, charred seeds of ber and charcoal fragments have been found. A large number of skeletal remains of a variety of the animal species were probably of: chital, hog deer, antelope, buffalo, cattle,bison, nilgai, elephant, rhinocerous, porcupine, pig and dog etc. Besides bones of birds, fish and tortoise are also found.
The burials are found in the habitation area and situated usually near the hearths Most of them are extended burials but three are crouched burials. Generally, the burials are oriented east-west or westeast
directions. Double/Multiple burials are found having males and females in it in several orders.
Evidence of ornaments are reported from few graves of this region. The ornament types include: earrings, necklaces and pendants made of bone, antler and ivory
 

Sarai Nahar Rai (U.P.):

Situated on the banks of a horse-shoe lake about 15 km from Pratapgarh near Allahabad, this site is rich in Mesolithic culture materials. It was studied in detail by G.R.Sharma.

The habitation at this site covered an area of about 2,000 sq. Meters. A living floor of about 5 x 4 meters with post holes in four corners was excavated. The floor is littered with burnt clay lumps and charred animal bones. Many hearths were also found.

Thirteen skeletons have been excavated. They are buried in an extended position, with one arm placed diagonally across the abdomen while the other lying along the body, the head was pointing towards the West. It is clear that they had a well-developed burial tradition. One of the skeletons has a microlith pierced into the rib, pointing towards the possibility of feud or warfare. Microliths and a particular type of shell were also buried with them. The tool types are mostly points, lunates, trapezes, bladed arrow-heads, burins, etc.


Rock Shelter Sites:

 
Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh):

Adamgarh is another important site in the Western zone, situated in Narmadapuram, Madhya Pradesh. R.V.Joshi (1964) excavated the site and obtained evidence of Mesolithic at these rock-shelters and immediately outside some shelters nearly 18 trenches were dug. Microliths have been uncovered in almost all of them within first 150 cm. The top 20-60 cm of course is usually sterile and constitutes of rock debris and soil. Lower layers yield Palaeoliths of a large variety of types.

What is interesting about the Adamgarh microliths is that they are constantly associated with pottery fragments and rich animal remains. At least 14 different animal species have been identified of which dog; buffalo, sheep/goat and pig are declared as being domesticated. The radio-carbon dates 5500 ± 130 B.C.

Both these dates are incongruous if we have to accept Adamgarh microliths as representing an early Neolithic economy. In terms of tool types identified we have blades, lunates, obliquely blunted knives along with triangles and trapezes. But we also have such flake types as side scrapers, borers, points and occasionally burins prepared on exhausted cores. AMicroliths are cruder than those obtained at Langhnaj.



Sangankallu (Karnataka):

Sangankallu in Bellary district has been known as a famous prehistoric site since the beginning of the 20th century. Subbarao excavated this site in 1949. In 1965-66 Sankalia undertook a small-scale fresh excavation on the foot of the hill. Since the Neolithic in this region is dated around 2500 B.C., the microlithic group is estimated around 3500 B.C. These microliths from the pre-Neolithic layers are essentially composed of flakes, both utilized and retouched. Blades are surprisingly not reported at all from this layer although there are many lunates identified. e tools are made mostly on quartz. The waste material from the site indicates that the tools were made at the site itself. Parallel sided flakes, cores, points, scrapers, and lunates are the major tools.

In addition to these, there are hundreds of smaller sites yielding microliths scattered all over India, such as  Shorapur Doab in Karnataka, Nagarjun Konda in Andhra Pradesh,

NEOLITHIC PERIOD :

It is concluding phase of stone age.
Ground tools, polished tools is the special characteristics
Pottery is also found in this period
Plant cultivation and animal domestication continued.
Growth of farming community and sedentary village life, According to Gordon Childe “this was Neolithic revolution”, but is not substantiated by Modern research there was no sudden revolution but gradual process of transition of transformation.
Books, NEW LIGHT ON MOST ANCIENT (1934), THE PREHISTORY OF EUROPEAN SOCIETY (1958)
There were several independent regions where farming began independently.

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF NEOLITHIC
-Ground & polished tools having smooth & round surface for better cutting edge
-Grinding technique was invented
-Economy of effort and raw material was applied on Neolithic tools
-CELT was new tools work like Axe or Adze used for clearing the area of wild vegetation.
-Pottery in its initial phase was rough & hand made without using wheels for cooking and food grains.
-Stone querns, pestles, ring stones were specifically used in food preparation.
-Community grew larger and adopted the settled way of life
-Small huts made of wattle and daub houses (Twigs and sticks plastered with mud)
-Burial were planned and made shows religious belief system
-Ornamentation using sea shell, lapis lazuli, some of the item were brought from far away indicates some kind of barter system in vogue.


INDIA :
-1842 : celt was found at Raichur Karnataka by Le Mesurie
-1867: John Lubbock found microliths from Brahmaputra valley
-A culture in north west Indian subcontinent, Baluchistan, Pakistan (7k-4k BCE)
 

1-North Western region covering Neolithic settlement at North Kashmir during 2500-1700 BCE
2-Central India, Vindya region (4000-1200 BCE)
3-Mid Gangetic – Eastern UP Bihar (2000-1500 BCE)
4-Eastern India ( Assam, Chittagong and Bengal, Odisa)
5-Penninsuar India South (2500-1500 BCE)

REGIONAL VARIATION OF FOOD TYPES:
North East region : Neolithic tools found but no evidence of plant cultivation.
Kashmir – No proceeding Mesolithic culture
Mehrgarh & North – Wheat Barley
Allahabad – Rice cultivation
South India – Millet & Ragi

North West – Mehrgarh, Killi Gul Muhammad, Damb Salat, Rana Gundai – Baluchistan
Gumla, Rehman Dheri, Tarakai Quila, Sarai Khola – NWFP

Mehrgarh Period – I  (7000 BC – 5500 BC)
1. Aceramic Polished axes, Chisels, Querns, Microliths, lunatics, triangle
2. Bone tools – AWLs, needles
3. Hunting, Bones of sheep, goat, Buffaloes
4. Mud Bricks houses – gradually Bigger
5. Small cell like compartments-storage for grains
6. Charred seeds of wheat & Barley
7. Indian jujube (Ber) & Dates
8. Grave goods microbeads of steatite, lapis lazuli, Turequoise, rings Bangles of sea shells
Mehrgarh Period – II (5500-4500 BC)
1. Tool type same as period -I
2. Hand made pottery, no floral or faunal motif
3. Later Wheel based pottery
4. Large Mud Brick structure-Granary
5. Sickle with three stone blade on wooden handle.
6. Charred cotton seeds
7. Elephant tusk with groove marks
8. Human terracotta figurine
Mehrgarh Period – III (4500 BC)
1. Agriculture – cattle rearing activity
2. Increase in grave, hence increase in population
3. Wheel turned pottery with human & floral designs.
4. Cornelian, turquoise & shells

Nausharo is only 6 kms from Mehrgarh

Burzahom, Gufkral – 2000 – 1500 BC – Neolithic and Megalithic site
1. Absence of preceding Microlithic period
2. First phase, under ground pit, cicular or rectangular, wooden roof cover protection from cold.
3. Potholes on the mouth of the pit
4. Domesticated sheep, goat, cattle, dog, pigs
5. Wheat, barley, lentils, common peas

Burzahom Phase – I
Living in underground pit circular or rectangular wooden roof cover overhead

Phase – II  - Overground in mud bricks, polished tools (Polished axe, Point, Pestle, Querns, Harvesters – Rectangular stone knives with 2 or more holes on blunt sides.

Bone were also used in harpoon, needles, arrowheads, spear joint, daggers

NEOLITHIC POTTERY : People of neolithic made bowls, high necked jar, mat impression on pottery particularly at bottom, weaving knowledge, thousand beads cornelian, agate in a well proves trading activity with Rajasthan. Painted pot with horned figure found from kot Diji
Stone slab containing an engraving depicting hunting scenes of antler deer.

NEOLITHIC BURIAL :
1. Found in residential areas or house compounds
2. Primary (Full skeleton) & Secondary (Few bones) Burial. Red ochre sprinkled on body
3. Human skull with holes have been found (Trepanning or drilling) for pain removal
4. Animal bones, generally dog with human grave
5. Ritualistic burial of a group of animals (5 dogs + 1 Antler)



CENTRAL INDIA – NEOLITHIC PERIOD

1. Koldhiwa & Mahagara at Belan river valley, Prayagraj
2. Sinduria in Mirzapur, UP and Kunjun in Sidhi, MP (4000-2500 BC)
3. Wattle & Daub huts (Reed & split bamboo impression on burnt clay)
4. Post holes on the periphery of floor suggest a temporary roof overhead.
5. Both Microlith and Neolithic polished tools found – Blade, flake, lunates, polished ground axe and celt.
6. Tolls include chalcedony, agate, quartz and basalt. Heavy tools such as querns and pestles for crushing grains.
7. Mahadah site has bone implements and cattle pen.
8. Ceramic used by hand made & poorly fired coarse clay with straw & rice husk.
9. Corded ware different bowls and jars incised designs in the form of criss cross and zigzag lines.
10. Koldhiwa and Mahagara also had farming and husbandry activities.
11. Cattle, sheep, goat, deer bones found. Bones of fish & turtle also found.
12. Cultivation of rice (5500 BC) known from carbonised seeds and husk from pottery.
13. Chopani-Mando in MP is a late Mesolithic site



MID-GANGETIC REGION :
Neolithic sites
1. Narhan – River Saryu
2. Imlidih – River Kuwana
3. Sohgaura – River Rapti, Gorakhpur
4. Chirand – River Gaghra 2900-1400 BC
5. Teradih – Bodgaya
6. Senuwar – Sasaram Bihar


CHIRAND :
Circular or semi circular huts
Made of reed and bamboo
Plastered with mud ( wattle & daub house)
Impression of reed on burnt pieces of clay
Post holes to support a roof & hearth for cooking
Plant cultivation, animal domestication, Rice, Wheat, Barley, Moong, Masur
Bones of ox, buffalo, elephant, Rhino found
Stone tools – blades, lunates, arrowheads (chalcedony), agate or jasper, polished axes, gerns and pestles made of quartzite, basalt, granite, needles, scrappers, borers and arrowheads
Terracotta figurines of humped bulls & birds
Pottery – handmade + wheel – vase, jars, bowls, spoons ladles, post firing painted designs.
Except Burzahom, only chirand has bone objects.


EASTERN INDIA – NEOLITHIC (2500-1500 BC)

1- Barudih – Singhbhum – Jharkhand
2- Kuchai – Mayurbhanj
3- Golbai sasan – Puri – Orissa
4- Daojali Hading – North Cachar hills
5- Sarutaru – Kamrup – NE of Guahati Assam
6- Pandu Rajar Dhibi – Ajay valley – West Bengal


Polished axe, Adzes fashioned on Basalt or quartzite
Shouldered axes have also been reported from various sites in Assam
Domestication of sheep, goat, cattle-hunting main occupation
No grain found
Handmade vessesls of coarse clay & carry cord impression.
Vessels were enlarged & shaped by beating with a wooden mallet wrapped with a cord. (close connection with pottery of China and South east Asia.)


SOUTHERN NEOLITHIS CULTURES (Karnataka, Andhra, Tamil, 2335-1350BC) 

The Neolithic culture of South India refers to the period of human history in southern India that lasted from around 4000 BCE to 1000 BCE. The Neolithic period is characterized by the development of settled communities, the cultivation of crops, and the domestication of animals.
During the Neolithic period in South India, people began to settle in permanent villages and develop agricultural practices. They grew crops such as millet, rice, and pulse, and also cultivated fruits, vegetables, and nuts. They also domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats. This transition to settled, agricultural communities marked a major shift in the way of life of South Indian people, as they transitioned from being hunter-gatherers to settled farmers.
Archaeological evidence from Neolithic sites in South India suggests that people of this period also had a relatively advanced level of technology. They made use of polished stone tools and pottery, and also developed a system of irrigation to support their agricultural activities. Burial sites also indicate that they had beliefs in afterlife and possibly some sort of ancestor worship.
The megalithic culture, including burial sites and artifacts, such as dolmens, cists, and menhirs, found in South India, show some similarities with those found in various parts of West Asia, Central Asia and Europe. This suggests that there may have been some level of cultural exchange between the Neolithic people of South India and other ancient societies in the region.
Overall, the Neolithic culture of South India was characterized by the development of settled communities, the cultivation of crops, and the domestication of animals, which led to a significant change in the way of life of the people living in the region

 
1. Between river Bhima and Cauvery
2. Kupgal – Bellary
3. SanganKallu
4. Hallur
5. Tekkalakota
6. Brahmagiri
7. Maski – Raichur
8. T. Narsipur
9. Piklihal – Raichur
10. Utnur
11. Palavoy
12. Kodekal
13. Budihal – Gulbarga
14. Paiyampalli - Tamilandu

-People lived near the hill or hillocks
-Settlements were guided by the consideration of the availability of perennial water, plenty -games, pasture for cattle, raw material for tools
-Wattle & daubh houses, cicular in are, conical thatched roof
-Hearth and storage jars
-Animal husbandry supplemented by farming
-Hallur, Tekkalkota – Millet, barley, horse gram, legumes, black gram, green gram
-Cattle, sheep, goat, buffaloe, dog, ass, pig bones of elephants deer, nilgai, fish also found
-Charred & split bones – carnivorous activity too
-Stone tools made of granite, sandstone
-Ground Axes, chisels, querns, mullers, microlith, blades, points and trapezes
-Palavoy, Andhra – some bone tools
-Tool Workshops and industry found
-Pottery handmade, incised diagonal & horizontal lines – jar, bowls, spouted pots, Later -period also had wheel made pottery, mat impression on potsherds
-Kupgal- Peacock hill, Bellary had rock paintings bruising,- deer, sheep, goat, horses
-Elaborate burial system, secondary burial, with in the houses, funerary goods, consisted-pottery, stone tools,
-Tekkalkota – large number of neolithic burials.

 SETTLEMENT PATTERN:
    Most  of the Neolithic sites are located at the foot of the hills or on top of low hillocks, overlooking plain valleys below.  There  are also instances of valley and plain-land sites.  After selection of the site  the  area was levelled using earth and stones.  

HOUSES:
    Most of the houses are built on circular plan though Nagarjunakonda  in late phase yielded rectangular plans.   The houses are circular huts built on a series of bamboo posts with a conical roof of perishable material like thatch, grass or reed.  The floors were first levelled flat with boulders and ashy earth.  Subsequently the floors  had a course of regular spreading of rubble or stone chips levelled with a thin layer of  ashy, earth or sometimes plastered with lime or mud.  Walls were  of wattle and split bamboo screen plastered with mud.  The houses had a hearth in a corner, s
    Nagarjunakonda,  Gandluru and Piyampalli (N. Arcot dt.) have yielded evidence of dwelling pits.  Of this the Paiyampalli evidence is considerable.  Here, the pits were of varying depths, cut into the natural soil, roughly oval or rectangular and oriented in the cardinal points.
        Postholes along the periphery suggest thatched roof.
    In Kashmir valley, the Neolithic people of phase-I lived in circular, oval,  rectangular or squarish pits cut into the natural loess or soft stone.  The walls of the pits were  plastered with the same material.  One of the largest pits measures 2.74 M at  the top and 4.75 M at the bottom in diameter and had a depth of 3.96 M.  Thus these dwelling pits are  ‘bottle’ shaped.  Landing steps are  also arranged for deep pits.  All along the periphery, at the top, post-holes are found, indicating some sort of superstructure of perishable material.  From the discovery of birch in one   such pits it may be concluded that birch was used for roofing material.  Hearths were noticed inside the pits,

TOOLS AND WEAPONS:
    The Neolithic people started the new tradition of polishing the stone tools.  The stone was first brought into the required shape and size by various chipping techniques.  Then it  is given some finish by pecking with a pointed stone.  Then the tool is grounded in stone cavities to bring a sharp cutting edge.  Finally, the tools were polished on hide, wood or bark for  smooth finish.  The types of tools found in this period are axes, adzes, shoe-last celts, long weeding hoes, picks with single or double working ends, chisels, axe-cum hammers, microliths, etc.  Bone tools are also reported from some parts of Karnataka.  
    Bone tools are more prominent in Kashmir Neolithic sites.  T
POTTERY:
    In the early phase  of the Neolithic,  the pottery was entirely hand made.  But in the later phases, we find  wheel made pottery.  Burnished grey ware is the speciality of the Neolithic period.  The surface treatment consists of burnishing, slip and roughening or rusticating.  Some vessels bear post firing paintings in red ochre in early phase and pre-firing designs  in black or violet pigments as at Hallur, Sangankallu and Tekkalkota in the later phases.

SUBSISTENCE:
    Neolithic  people were primarily agriculturists and domesticators of animals, hence they were prominently, agro-pastoral communities.    Agriculture has become  the main occupation of the populations, thus transforming completely from the hunter-gatherer stage to self-sufficient production stage.  Evidence of horse gram, ragi, millet, green gram, etc indicate the   type of  food they consumed.  Abundant animal bones, exhibiting cut and chop marks or in a charred condition, indicate a non-vegetarian diet including roasted meat and marrow.  
    The use of cattle as draft animals is evident from the development of anchylosis of the hock joint observed in the skeletal remains from Hallur.  

BURIALS:
    The Neolithic people generally observed the practice of  burying  the dead in the habitational area or near by it.  Nagarjunakonda yielded the evidence of separate cemetery from the habitational area.  The dead are usually buried,  accompanied by pottery and ornaments, Two different modes of disposal were noticed – 1) Primary extended burials, and 2)  post-excarnation burials.  Infants were buried in the urns, usually in the houses.
    At Burzahom in the Kashmir valley, the dead used to be buried in oval-shaped pits dug usually into the house floors.  These pits are narrow at the top and broad at the bottom with a depth of about 3 meters.  The sides of these pits are plastered with lime.  The filling inside the pits is mostly ash, stone pieces and potsherds.  Both primary  and secondary burials have been noticed.  The skeletal remains are laid to rest in a crouched or embryonic position.  One of such skeleton  is completely smeared with red ochre.  Some holes are also noticed on the skull.  These probably indicate their belief in resurrection.     Another interesting feature of the Kashmir Neolithic sites is the  ANIMAL BURIALS.  Animals have been found interred in pits similar to those used  for the humans.  

ORNAMENTS:
    Beads are the commonly found ornaments of these people.  Beads of shell, steatite, terra cotta and silicious stones and copper and gold are reported from several sites.  Copper  bangles from Brahmagiri and spiral ring from T.Narsipur  are  the few metal ornaments found in the Neolithic sites.  

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS:
    The careful interment of the skeletal remains of the dead and the red ochre coating on the bones noticed at Burzahom suggest that these people had some belief in magico religious resurrection.  Sacrificial killing and burying of  pet animals of the deceased  and ceremonial feast of  animal meat is suggestive of involvement of the family or community in the ceremonies.  The association of tools and weapons with the skeletal remains also suggest their belief in life after death.  

NEOLITHIC ART:
    There is considerabale evidence of Neolithic art.  There are some paintings and bruishings on the rock face at Piklihal, Benkal, Bellary, Budagavi, Kalyana durg, etc.  Few terracotta figurines of bulls and birds are found at Piklihal, Tekkalkotta and Sanganakallu.  These figures are all hand-modelled and with all limbs luted, the legs of the bulls are not separated.  At Burzahom a stone slab is engraved with a hunting scene.  It shows a stag or deer being hunted from the front with a bow and arrow and a spear from the rear.  Interestingly, the depiction contains two  pictures of  Sun, probably to indicate the duration of the hunt.  

    The Neolithic period represents the real transformation of  human society from hunter-gatherer stage to self-sufficient production stage.  During this period Man has become real agriculturist and pastoralist.  The  foundations of the present day villages could  be traced to  the Neolithic societies. India.

 

 

 

1. SOHAN VALLEY CULTURE :

 

 

 

 https://www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/sohan/history-of-sohan-india-prehistory/13184

A Sohan or Soan is tributary of river Indus. Sohan which drains the Potwar region joins the Indus somewhat north of Jhelum. Presently, most of this region is in Pakistan.

The Sohan Valley, located in the Potwar Plateau of Pakistan, is an area of significant geological interest due to its rich stratigraphy, which has been shaped over millions of years by a combination of tectonic activity and sedimentary processes. The valley is home to a variety of rock formations, including sandstones, shales, and limestones, that have been deposited in a specific order, known as the stratigraphic sequence.
The stratigraphic sequence in the Sohan Valley begins with the oldest rocks, the Precambrian rocks, which are found at the bottom of the sequence. These rocks are estimated to be between 600 and 800 million years old, and they consist primarily of granite, gneiss, and schist. These rocks were formed when the region was part of a large continent, and they provide evidence of the intense tectonic activity that shaped the region during this time.
Overlying the Precambrian rocks are the Cambrian rocks, which were deposited around 540 million years ago. These rocks consist mainly of sandstones, shales, and limestones, and they were formed as a result of sedimentary processes that occurred when the region was covered by shallow seas.

 The Palaeolithic culture found in this region is substantially different from that found in the Indian continent. The Sohan Palaeolithic tools were found for the first time in the Pleistocene terrace deposits of Potwar region by De Terra and Patterson of the Yale- Cambridge expedition.

In the Sohan stone tools although, there was a flake element in the early stages, the use of pebble was dominant. Typologically, the tools can be distinguished as Abbevellian, Early Acheulian, Middle Acheulian and Late Acheulian. But there is no stratigraphic basis for this sub-division as the tools are found in a mixed state.

CHOPPER CHOPPING COMPLEX:

The Pebble tools of Sohan industries are classified into two main sub-types, the Chopper and Chopping tools. The chopper has a round, semi-oval or almost straight cutting edge. The edge is formed by removal of flakes only from the upper surface of the implement. A chopper is thus a unifacial tool, worked on one side only and hence some scholars designate it as an unifacial tool. The chopping tool is also made on a pebble or a core. Its edge is produced by alternate flaking. This alternate flaking gives the tool a wavy edge. The chopping tool is thus a bi-facial tool, worked on both the faces. Owing to the dominance of chopper and chopping tools the Sohan complex is also called Chopper chopping complex. The Arrythian culture of Burma and the Chouketin culture of China, the Tampanian culture of Malaysia and the Patjitinian culture of Java are characterised by the Chopper chopping tools. The Sohan culture seems to be related to these chopper chopping cultures of Southeast Asia.

The Sohan industry has its spread also in sub-Himalayan region in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. The Sirsa valley in Punjab and Beas-Banganga valley in Kangra district in Himachal Pradesh has yielded evidence of Sohan industries. In Beas-Banganga Guler is an important site. The recent researches have shown that pebble tool industry has much wider spread in Peninsular India.

The stone tools found in North India show three phases of evolution. They are 1) Pre-Sohan; 2) Early-Sohan; and 3) Late-Sohan.

1. PRE-SOHAN INDUSTRY:

The tools which constitute the earliest Palaeolithic culture (corresponding to second glaciation – 4 lakh B.P.) (But new evidence from Bori in Maharashtra has pushed back the date of Palaeolithic culture to 14 lakh years B.P.) in India consist of large flakes made from crude split pebbles. The upper surface is generally un-worked. The striking platforms are simple, unfaceted. There is no secondary working. The tools are worked on only one side and hence unifacial.

2. EARLY SOHAN INDUSTRY:

During this phase two categories of tools were recognised, 1) pebble tools consisting mainly chopping tools with flat base. The flakes have been struck upwards in such a way as to form a thick steep cutting edge. These tools are sometimes given secondary retouch either on one side or both sides. 2) The second category consists of flake tools and cores. The techniques of flake removal is either platformed or non-platformed. Both Levalloisian (tortois core) and Clactonian type of flake removal also is witnessed in this category hand-axes of Madrasian industry also occur.

3.LATE SOHAN INDUSTRY:

Late Sohan tools occur in the deposits of the third Glaciation. (2 lakh years ago). The Levalloisian technique noticed in the earlier industry continues. Rough oval pebbles with untouched butt and flaking along the opposite side, some times from each surface alternately, producing wavy edge are more common. Late Sohan is devoid of hand-axes.

 

 

2. BELAN VALLEY CULTURE :

  Belan is an important tributary of river Tons. It is the only river in the northern Vindhyas which flows east to west. The Belan valley is bounded by Vindhyan ridges in the north and Kaimur range in the south. The Belan valley contain entire range of stone age sites. The sites of this region are concentrated in rock shelters as well as open air areas. The rock shelters are mostly situated in the upper reaches of the river Belan and its tributaries, The sites of open air area are located in various geographical backgrounds, such as: on elevated plateau, on the toes of hillocks on the flat top of Kaimur and in vicinity of rock shelters. 

 

Sites : Daiya(lower Pal), Magagada, Murali Mahugarh(lower pal), paniha Tara, Batau Bir(middle pal), Khuta Bir, Mudwa, Chopani Mando, Lonmati, Koldhiwa(neo), Panchoh(neolithic), Kapasi, Khujuri

3 Lakh to 8,000 BCE - Lower Palaeolithic to Mesolithic

the section terraces are 21 meter height, in this section we see different cultural phases for example, bedrock, deposition of rock, deposition of soil, deposition of gravels. The levels show either multiple cultral phases or single culture. different stone artefacts are found with in these gravel deposit

In archaeological terms The entire deposit of the Belan are divided into 9 parts.

the lowest deposition absence of archaeological artefacts is weathered Vindhyan bed rock

1. Gravel I deposition: 1.52 meters deposit, stone pieces, lower palaeolithic tools and fossils. west climate
2. Silt formation: 3 meter deposit, no tools, no fossils, dry climate (experts deduce that level 1 and 2 are contemporary, Heavy gravel went down)
3. Gravel II : 2.74 meter deposit, this indicates of increase in flow of water. divided into 3 parts. A. Lower Plaeolithic, B. Middle Palaeolithic, C. Upper Palaeolithic, wet and dry climate. (Heavey rain and dry climate because of the thick soil deposit in between)
4. Reddish silt : 1,25 meter deposit, stone pieces, and stone chips, Middle Palaeolithic tools, dry climate.
5. Yellowish soil formation : 1.52 meter deposit, middle and upper palaolithic tools (Blade Chert)

6. Gravel III : 1.21 meter deposit, sand, upper Plaeolithic tools (Mother Goddess from Lohanda Nala - Bone)
7. Sandy Soil Formation : 1.82 meter deposit, upper palaeolithic and mesolithic tools.
8. Blackish soil formation : 2.43 meter deposit, mesolithic
9. Alluvial soil formation: 4 meters deposit- soil brought by flow of air, mesolithic tools

 

3. NARMADA SITES:

 

In the central Narmada valley the basal the gravel yielded unworn or fresh Acheulian tools along with heavily rolled Abbevillian handaxes , choppers on pebbles and lagre massive flakes This indicates that the latter tools are earlier than Acheulian tools. The fresh condition of the Acheulian tools indicate that they got incorporated in the gravel while it was being deposited by the Narmada. This suggests that the basal gravel of the lower group was deposited when the lower Palaeolithic man here was manufacturing Acheulian type of tools. It follows then that the heavily rolled Abbevillian hand-axes and the pebbel choppers and large flakes were manufactured before the beginning of the deposition of the basal gravel . This goup of tools has, therefore, been placed earlier in date than that of the Acheulian. On the whole the Narmada valley is a meeting places for both chopper(Sohan) and handaxe(Madrasian) industries.

The excavations conducted in 1963 at Mahadev Piparia yielded 860 specimens The collection consisted of: 

184 choppers 

98 scrapers

22 Hand axes

117 cleavers 

325 Flakes

95 Cores.

More significant is the discovery of scull cap of Pre-historic man in middle pleistocene deposits at Hathnora in Hoshangabad district. The discovery was made by Arun Sonakia of the Geological Survay of India. This discovery is very important since this is the only instance in India ,where we have the skeletal remains of palaeolithic man though his tools are available from numerous sites. 

ADAMGARH HILL: In the excavations on the hill conducted R.V. Joshi, it was found that immediately overlying the deposit containing Lower Palaeolithic artifacts was another tool-bearing talus made up of small rock fragments and pale brown clay. The Middle Palaeolithic tools occur above the layers yielding hand-axes cleavers (Lower Palaeolithic) and below the microlithic (Upper Palaeolithic) layer.

All the tools of this assemblage are smaller than those of the Lower Palaeolithic and larger than the microliths. They are mostly made on the same quartzite and sandstone. They are very rarely made on chert and never on chalcedony or quartz. The collection of this unspecialized industry comprised of points and scrapers which represent its leading tool types. They are worked either on flakes or on nodules. Besides, there are blades or flake-blades, occasionally retouched as side scrapers. The flakes are removed from pebbles and slabs.

A few discoidal cores are also present. The flakes invariably have an unfaceted striking platforms inclined at angles more than 90 degrees. These flakes which have flake scars on either upper surface seem to have been struck off from the prepared cores. The borers are made on flakes and rarely on nodules. Points are made exclusively on flakes. All the points are worked unifacially only. They are triangular, leaf-shaped and tanged or arrow head types. The scraper are made either on flakes, on small pebbles or on split pebbles. No cleaver was me with in association with these tools. On technological grounds, the industry should be termed as late Acheulian. But, on account of the unspecialized character of its implement types, this industry would rather seem to belong to the Middle Palaeolithic stage.

 

4. MAHANDI SITES:

 

5. SON RIVER SITES:

 The River Son originates from the Amarkantak Hills, Madhya Pradesh and flows mainly through the Vindhyan hill ranges merges with Ganga at Patna. Prehistoric sites of Lower Palaeolithic to microlithic phases have been reported from Upper, Middle (Madhya Pradesh) and Lower Son Valley (Uttar Pradesh).

UPPER SON VALLEY : Anuppur, Shahdol

MIDDLE SON VALLEY : Sidhi district

LOWER SON VALLEY : Flowing through Sonbhadra District, Rohtas, Sasaram and Patna.

G.R. Sharma discovered Palaeolithic; microlithic and rock art sites during investigations in what are now Mirzapur and Sonbhadra districts, covering hill ranges and the plateau. B. B. Mishra and B. D. Mishra from Allahabad University led several expeditions. They were looking for hominin fossils and ended up Lower Palaeolithic sites have yielded cores, handaxes, cleavers, and scrapers made on quartzite and chert. Middle Palaeolithic sites have yielded cores, flakes, and various types of scrapers, points and blades made on quartzite, chert and quartz. Upper Palaeolithic and microlithic artefacts are reported on a variety of raw materials like, chert, quartz and jasper.

5 terrace are found from son river, based on name of the sites on Soan valley.

1. Sihawal : most oldest deposition (sidhi district). 1.5 meter deposit, eroded bedrock, sand stone, quartzite nodules, lower palaeolithic artifacts (1 Lakh years)

2. Khunteli - Pale yellow brown medium sand, Toba volcanic ash, 1.5 meter deposit, no physical remains found, 74 thousnad years

3. Patpara - 10 meter deposit, middle palaeolithic artifacts. appr. 58-40 thousand years

4. Baghor Coarse member - 10 meters deposit, middle palaeolithic, artifacts, animal fossils, 39-20 thousand years

   Baghor fine member : 4 meter deposit, fresh upper palaeolithic artifacts, animal fossils, 20-16 thousand years

5. Khetuhi - 10 meter deposit, silt and clay, microlithic and neolithic artifacts. 10 thousand years


At Soan Valley, chert has been in use since lower palaeolithic period.

Important sites : Sihawal, Patapra, Bhaghor 1,2,3, khetuhi, Nakjhar khurd, Kukrawa, Jogdaha, gagaraiya, Hatwa, Rampura.

6. GODAVARI SITES :

 

The environs of Godavari another river of the peninsular India was a favorite ground for prehistoric man. In Godavari valley several important Palaeolithic sites were discovered.

CHIRKI-NEWASA: An Acheulian site was discovered at Chirki on river Pravara, a tributary of Godavari, some three kilometers from Nevasa in Ahmadnagar district of Maharashtra. The site was discovered by Gudrun Cornvus in 1963 and later excavated by her for three seasons from 1966 to 1969.

Man camped on the flat surface on the banks of the valley and used the bouldry terrace as his factory site to manufacture his tools there from the available boulders. But, no trace of his camp site could be found, the tools were prepared using basalt or dolorite boulders. Chalcedony and Quartz was also used for tools. The excavated site yielded more than 2000 artifacts, suggesting that it was a factory site . The angularity and sharpness of the tools show that no transportation took place. In the assemblage are included large number of unfinished artificats and large flakes, waste flakes and pebbles with little working.

The tools have been found both in finished and unfinished stages, classified into pebble tools and flake tools. The pebble tools consists of hand-axes and cleavers scrapers knives, chisels, borers, worked flakes, waste flakes,etc. On pebble tools alternate flaking and secondary working was noticed. The choppers are uni-facial, bi-facial, poly-hydral ( with many angles), backed and discoidal.

TECHNIQUES OF TOOL PRODUCTION: Over 90% of the flakes are side struck and only a few are end-struck or obliquely struck. The cores were prepared as they have flat base. On hand-axes the flakes are removed by side flaking, whereas for cleavers the straight cutting edge is produced by transversal and lateral trimming.

The surface collection and excavated material from Chirki revealed that:

1. The early stone age industry was highly developed;

2. It contained a small percentage of tools made on quartz and chalcedony;

3. It is probably was not far removed in time from the middle Palaeolithic industry.

7. KORTALAYAR SITES :